Fig. 4.

Outline of translational strategies to improve future SGTs. The choice of preclinical model systems is an important aspect for developing SGTs toward HGG treatment. GSCs are known to be the most clinically relevant preclinical models that recapitulate patient tumors very closely and thus a particular SGT should be tested in GSCs. If unsuccessful, the therapy should be subject to further improvements in different aspects as indicated. If successful, the therapy should be tested in immunocompetent models, for example, syngeneic glioma models and humanized models to analyze immune responses. If durable antitumor immune responses are detected, the particular SGT should be considered for clinical translation. Otherwise, additional treatments as combination with SGT can be considered to boost the immunostimulatory effect of a particular SGT. Combination with checkpoint inhibitors and co-delivery of immunostimulatory cytokines are important examples.