Table 3.

Summary of µ-LED mass transfer techniques

Elastomer stamping	Electrostatic transfer	Electromagnetic transfer	Laser-assisted transfer	Fluid self-assembly
•Transfer yield 99.99% •10–25K units/h •Small area •Stamp deformation	•Large area •Device break down by high voltage	•Large area •Ferromagnetic layer required	•Transfer yield 90% •100M units/h •1.8 μm placement error	•56M units/h •Low cost