Table 1.
Metabolism disrupting chemicals (MDCs), their nuclear receptors (NRs) and other transcription factor targets, epigenetic modifications, and mitochondrial effects [27,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,46,47].
| ED Chemical Group | Example | Energy Metabolism Cholesterol and Bile Acid Metabolism |
Partner for Other NRs | Classical ED Targets | Epigenetic Modifications |
Mitochondrial Effects | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CAR PXR |
ERR | GR | TR VDR |
PPARs | LXR FXR |
AhR | RXR | ER | AR | DNA Methylation Histone Modifications ncRNAs | Bioenergetics | Oxidative Stress | ||
| Alkylphenols and derivatives | Nonylphenol | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||||
| Antifoulants | Tributyltin | x | x | x | x | |||||||||
| Bisphenols | BPA | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
| Flame retardants | PBDE | x | x | x | ||||||||||
| Fungicides | Conazoles, Vinclozolin |
x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||||
| Herbicides | Atrazine | x | ||||||||||||
| Parabens | Butylparaben | x | x | x | ||||||||||
| POPs | PCBs, DDT | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||||
| Pesticides and insecticides | Thiacloprid, Cypermethrin |
x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
| Phthalates | DEHP | x | x | x | x | x | ||||||||
| Polyfluorinated chemicals | PFOS | x | x | x | x | |||||||||
x indicates known effects of these compounds on NR activity or epigenetic modifications or mitochondrial function. BPA: Bisphenol A, PBDE: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, POP: Persistent organic pollutants, PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyl, DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, DEHP: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, PFOS: Perfluorooctanoic acid, CAR: Constitutive androstane receptor, ERR: Estrogen-related receptor, GR: Glucocorticoid receptor, TR: Thyroid hormone receptor, VDR: Vitamin D receptor, PPAR: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, LXR: Liver X receptor, FXR: Farnesoid X receptor, AhR: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, RXR: Retinoid X receptor, ER: Estrogen receptor, AR: Androgen receptor, ncRNA: non-coding RNA.