Table 1.

Summary data on impact of the hormone imbalance, disturbance of the sex hormone receptors and the enzyme activity/expression on the hepatic metabolism of carbohydrate in relation to the gender as a cause of many physiological dysfunctions, syndromes or diseases.

Hormone Imbalance or Receptor/Enzyme Dysfunction	Results	References
Disturbed carbohydrate metabolism in male
↓ Testosterone	Hyperglycemia, T2D, MetS	Muthusamy et al. [5]
AR (lack)	IR, T2D	Lin et al. [4]
AR knockout	↓ Glucose metabolism, IR, hyperinsulinemia	Lin et al. [4]
AR knockout + HFD	↓ Sensitivity to insulin	Lin et al. [11]
5α-red1 knockout + ALIOS	Hyperinsulinemia	Dowman et al. [12]
5α-red1 knockout + HFD	Hyperinsulinemia	Livingstone et al. [13]
↓ ERα	↓ Glucose metabolism, IR, hyperinsulinemia, T2D, MetS	Zirilli et al. [16], Yamada et al. [28]
ERαKO	↓ Glucose tolerance, hepatic IR	Bryzgalova et al. [20], Nilsson et al. [29]
↓ Testosterone	Hyperglycemia, T2D, MetS	Muthusamy et al. [5]
Disturbed carbohydrate metabolism in female
↓ Testosterone	↑ Glucose	Kelly et al. [7]
↓ Estrogens	↑ Diabetes	Saengsirisuwan et al. [21], Feigh et al. [22]

ALIOS—American lifestyle-induced obesity syndrome, AR—androgen receptor; ERα—estrogen receptor alpha, ERαKO—ERα knockout, HFD—high-fat diet, IR—insulin resistance, MetS—metabolic syndrome, T2D—type 2 diabetes, 5α-red1—5α reductase type 1.