Table 2.

Main biological activities of chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) as anti-inflammatory drugs.

Biological activity	References
Modulation of innate and adaptive immune cell activation, cytokine response and inflammation
Inhibition of antigen presentation by APCs •Inhibition of PICALM expression, CME and pathogen internalization •Vesicle alkalinization and inhibition of endosomal/lysosomal antigen processing •Vesicle alkalinization and inhibition of MHC processing and MHC-antigen complex formation	[15] [ 27,28] [27,28]
Inhibition of Ca2+ signaling and T and B cell activation	[29]
Inhibition of Th17 proliferation and differentiation	[30]
Vesicle alkalinization and inhibition of the TLR signaling and MMPs	[31,32]
Inhibition of phospholipase A2 and of the release of prostaglandins	[33]
Inhibition of p38 MAPK activation and of the release of cytokines	[22,23]
Inhibition of TNF-α release	[37,48,49,50]
Inhibition of vasodilation, infiltration and adhesion of leukocytes at the site of inflammation
Inhibition of respiratory burst in polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Inhibition of IL- β release	[38,51]
Inhibition of neutrophil recruitment and Th17 differentiation
Inhibition of IL-6 release	[37,56]
Inhibition of Th17 differentiation
Induction of cytotoxic activity of CD8 + T cells
Activation of Treg cell functions
Reduction of tissue injury
Reduction of microorganism immune evasion strategy