Fig. 2. Low taxane-induced micronucleation stimulates innate immunity response and may promote lymphocyte-mediated cancer cell killing when combined with ICI treatment.

Cancer cells may express tumor-specific neoantigens and when treated with low doses of taxanes may induce micronucleation-dependent activation of antigen presenting cell (APC). a Micronucleation-dependent activation of APC may stimulate adaptive immunity to promote effector T lymphocyte-mediated cancer cell killing. b Micronucleation-dependent activation of APC may stimulate adaptive immunity but keep effector T lymphocytes under check by upregulating immune checkpoint molecules (immune checkpoint ligands and cognate receptors are indicated in green and red, respectively). c Cancer cells themselves may upregulate immune checkpoint molecules and keep effector T lymphocytes under check. d The combination of low doses of taxanes with ICIs unleashes potent effector T-cell-mediated cancer cell killing.