Table 3.
Summary of mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of PLA composites.
| Trade name | Filler | Filler content | Mechanical | Thermal | Morphology | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ingeo 4032D | WF (14 μm) | 5 wt% | ↑ in TS with ↑ of WF in 0-1.5% strain range. ↑ in E of PLA/WF composite. |
↓ in Tg and Tcc of PLA with ↑ in WF. | Poor interfacial bonding between PLA and WF. | Tao et al., 2017 |
| Ingeo 2003D | Beech wood (mesh size 0.237 mm) | 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt% | ↑ in TS and E up to 10 wt% and 20 wt% WF, respectively, and then ↓ on further ↑ WF. | No change in Tg. | With ↑ of WF, printed surface became rougher with more pores and visible agglomeration of wood particles. | Kariz et al., 2018 |
| Ingeo 4032D | Poplar WF (100 meshes) TPU PCL POE |
10 wt% 10 wt% 10 wt% 10 wt% |
↓ in mechanical properties with ↑ in WF. ↑ in IS and TS on adding TPU in PLA/WF composite. Incorporating PCL and POE to composite ↓ its IS. |
No change in crystallinity of PLA with ↑ in WF. Maximum ↑ in crystallinity of PLA/WF with POE, making it brittle. No change in Tg of PLA with addition of TPU. |
Poor interfacial interaction between WF and PLA. Adding TPU improved the interfacial interaction between WF and PLA, whereas adding POE made fracture surface of composite rougher. |
Guo et al., 2018 |
| Commercial PLA/WF filament | WF | 30 wt% | ↑ in surface roughness with ↑ in layer height. | Ayrilmis, 2018 | ||
| Ingeo 4032D | Cork powder | 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 50 wt% | ↓ in TS, E, and elongation at break of PLA/cork composite with ↑ in cork content. | Crystallinity of PLA was enhanced with ↑ in cork content. | Daver et al., 2018 | |
| Ingeo 4032D | PLA-g-CNFs | 1, 3, 5 wt% | Maximum TS and E at 3 wt% PLA-g-CNFs. | Tg of PLA was unaffected while crystallinity was ↑ by 7.9% on 3 wt% addition of PLA-g-CNFs. | Homogenous distribution of 5 wt% PLA-g-CNFs in the PLA matrix. | Dong et al., 2017 |
| Ingeo 4043D | GGM | 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 wt% | Similar flexural modulus as that of PLA up to 20 wt% addition of GGM. | Tg of PLA/GGM blend was not changed significantly. ↓ in thermal stability upon addition of GGM to the PLA matrix. |
Agglomeration of GGM was seen in both filaments and printed parts. PLA changed from continuous phase to spongy structure on adding GGM above 20 wt%. |
Xu et al., 2018a |
| Ingeo 2002D | PBS | 20, 40, 60, 80 wt% | Maximum ductility was observed in PBS/PLA (80:20 wt%) blend. TS of printed bar was maximum for PBS/PLA blend of composition 40:60. |
With PBS content above 60 wt%, recrystallization of PBS was seen during heating. Degree of crystallinity of FDM printed parts was higher than raw filaments. |
With PBS content less than 60%, PLA/PBS blend had no visible distortion. Serious distortion was seen with PBS more than 80%. |
Ou-Yang et al., 2018 |
| Mg Vitamin E | 6 g of 100 μm 4 g of 125 μm 2 g |
Tg was reduced due to Mg. | Incorporation of vitamin E enhanced the integration of Mg particles in the PLA matrix. No agglomeration of filler in the polymer matrix. |
Antoniac et al., 2019 | ||
| Commercial filament | Graphene | 10 wt% | ↑ in TS and E on incorporating 10 wt% graphene. | On adding 10 wt% graphene, Tg of PLA was ↑ by 4°C. | Good interlayer adhesion. Homogenous dispersion of graphene nanocomposite in the PLA matrix. |
Prashantha and Roger, 2017 |
| Ingeo 4043D | Chopped short CFs | 15 wt% | On adding 15 wt% of CFs, E of PLA was ↑ whereas TS was ↓. | CFs were aligned along the filament length as well as along the printed test specimen. Due to fiber pull out during failure of test specimen, voids were found. |
Ferreira et al., 2017 | |
| Ingeo 3251D | Polyamide 11 Joncryl ADR- 4368 |
20 wt% 0–3 wt% |
PLA/PA11 (80/20) composite showed similar mechanical behavior as that of neat PLA. PLA/PA11 composite showed highest elongation at break and TS 3 and 2 wt% Joncryl content, respectively. |
↑ in degree of crystallinity of PLA on adding PA11. ↓ in crystallinity of PLA/PA11 on 3 wt% addition of Joncryl. |
PA11 dispersed phased were present in both the filament and the 3D printed specimen. Poor interfacial adhesion with Joncryl content ≤1.5 wt%, which led to brittle failure. |
Rasselet et al., 2019 |
| Ingeo 3D850 | Lignin Castor oil |
0.5, 1, 2 and 3 wt% 40 μl |
Maximum load before failure ↓ with ↑ of lignin from 0 to 2 wt% and then ↑ at 3 wt%. | No effect on melting behavior on adding lignin. On adding 2 and 3 wt% lignin, Tg of PLA ↓. |
Domínguez-Robles et al., 2019 | |
| Ingeo 2003D | KL | 5, 10, 15, 20 wt% | Elongation at break and TS of PLA/lignin composite ↓ on ↑ lignin. No effect on E of PLA/lignin composite with addition of lignin. |
Double melting behavior of PLA was furthermore enhanced on addition of lignin. No significant difference in Tg and Tm was observed at various lignin concentrations. |
On adding 5 wt% lignin, uniform distribution of <20 μm sized lignin aggregates in the PLA matrix was observed. On adding 20 wt% lignin, aggregation concentration ↑ due to coalescence of lignin particles. |
Gkartzou et al., 2017 |
| Ingeo 4043D | KL OL LS |
5, 10, 15 wt% | No improvement in flexural strength on incorporating any of that lignin. ↓ in IS with ↑ in lignin content. |
LS-PLA composite had highest degree of decomposition as compared to OSL and KL. On adding 15 wt% KL, OSL, and LS, Tg and Tm of PLA ↓. |
Particle size of OSL lignin was 200 times smaller than KL and LS. Cavities were observed between PLA and LS particle, which became homogenous and smaller with the ↑ in LS content to 15 wt%. |
Mimini et al., 2019 |
Tcc–cold crystallization temperature. ↑ increase and ↓ decrease.