Table 2.
Modulation of phenolic compound content in pasta.
| Strategy | Sub-Strategy | Pasta Products | Effect on Phenolic Compound Content/Profile | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Use of functional ingredients in pasta-making | Whole Grain Flours | Whole grain wheat and whole grain spelt pasta (precooked) | ↑ content of protocatechuic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, trans-p-coumaric, cis-p-coumaric, trans-ferulic and cis-ferulic acids. | Wójtowicz et al. [33] |
| Whole grain wheat products | TPAs: 226.7 µg/g | Chen et al. [34] | ||
| Whole grain spaghetti | TPC (whole wheat spaghetti): 1263–1423 µg FAE/g dm TPC (regular spaghetti): 718–927 µg FAE/g dm |
Hirawan et al. [35] | ||
| Composite Flours | Pasta formulated with wheat semolina and 35% faba bean (Vicia faba L.) flour | TPC (functional pasta): 185.3 mg GAE/100 g dm TPC (control pasta): 63.8 mg GAE/100 g dm |
Turco et al. [36] | |
| Pasta with varying proportions of wheat (T. durum L.) semolina (0–100%), chickpea flour (0–90%), and chia flour (0–10%) | TPC (pasta with 10:90 chia:chickpea flour ): 16 mg GAE/g dm TPC (control pasta): 2 mg GAE/g |
Cota-Gastélum et al. [37] | ||
| Pasta prepared with carob flour (1–5%) | TPC (pasta with 1% of carob flour): 5.27 mg GAE/g dm TPC (pasta with 5% carob flour): 12.12 mg GAE/g dm TPC (control pasta): 3.51 mg GAE/g dm |
Sȩczyk et al. [38] | ||
| Pasta prepared with amaranth seed flours and dried amaranth leaves (35%, 50%, 55% and 70%) | TPC (amaranth-added pasta): 1.54 to 3.37 mg FAE/g dm TPC (control pasta, 100% semolina): 0.98 mg FAE/g dm The highest value was observed in pasta with a semolina: amaranth flour/leaves ratio of 65:35. |
Cárdenas-Hernández et al. [39] | ||
| GF pasta (unripe plantain and chickpea flour ) added with blue maize (Zea mays L.) at 25%, 50% and 75% | Samples containing 75% of blue maize presented the highest TPC retention after extrusion and cooking (approx. 70% and 80%, respectively). In the control pasta, the phenolic retention after extrusion and cooking was approx. 52% and 60%, respectively. | Camelo-Méndez et al. [40] | ||
| GF pasta (with rice, maize and soy flour) added with white and brown sorghum | TPC (pasta with white sorghum): 2.41 g GAE/ kg TPC (pasta with brown sorghum): 2.88 g GAE/kg TPC (rice pasta): 0.37 g GAE/kg TPC (soy pasta): 1.37 g GAE/kg TPC (corn pasta): 0.52 g GAE/kg |
Palavecino et al. [41] | ||
| Powders and extracts from plant foods and food by-products | Pasta from wheat semolina and pearl-millet added with carrot powder (10%), mango peel powder (5%), moringa leaves powder (3%) and defatted soy flour (15%) | TFC (control pasta): 6.30 mg/100 g dm TFC (carrot-added pasta): 7.63 mg/100 g dm TFC (mango peel-added pasta): 16.53 mg/100 g dm TFC (moringa leaves-added pasta): 17.98 mg/100 g dm TFC (defatted soy flour-added pasta): 8.03 mg/100 g dm |
Jalgaonkar et al. [42] | |
| Pasta added with mushroom (white button, shiitake and porcini) powder, at 5%, 10% and 15% semolina substitution levels | TPC values in mushroom pasta were significantly higher than in control pasta, except for 5% and 10% shiitake mushroom pasta. The greatest values were found in porcini mushroom pasta samples (approximately 4–5 mg GAE/g dm). | Lu et al. [43] | ||
| Pasta added with onion powder, at 0%, 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% semolina substitution level | TPC (cooked pasta added with onion skin): approx. from 1.4 to 3 mg GAE/g dm TFC (cooked pasta added with onion skin): approx. from 0.7 to 3.8 mg QE/g dm TPC (cooked control pasta): approx. 0.5 mg GAE/g dm TFC (cooked control pasta): approx. 0.1 mg QE/g dm Cooked pasta showed TPC not significantly different from the corresponding raw sample, whichever addition level of onion skin powder. |
Michalak-Majewska et al. [44] | ||
| Durum spaghetti added with olive paste powder (10%) | TPC (enriched spaghetti): 245.08 µg/g dm TPC (control pasta): 82.39 µg/g dm Control and functional pasta differed also in the phenolic profile. Increased level of flavonoids (i.e., quercetin and luteolin) in functional pasta. |
Padalino et al. [45] | ||
| Spaghetti added with extracts from grape marc (grape skins, seeds, and stalks) | TPC (functional spaghetti): approx. 700 mg GAE/100g dm | Marinelli et al. [46] | ||
| Pasta prepared from semolina and bran aqueous extract | TPC (functional spaghetti): 127 mg FAE/100 g fw TPC (control pasta): 97 mg FAE/100 g fw |
Pasqualone et al. [47] | ||
| GF pasta added with chia (Salvia hispanica L.) milled seeds (5% and 10% substitution levels) | In raw samples— TPA (functional GF pasta—10% sub.): 164.3 µg/g TPA (durum wheat pasta): 149.08 µg/g TPA (functional GF pasta—5% sub.): 98.40 µg/g TPA (pasta produced with commercial GF flour): 10.30 µg/g In cooked samples— ↑ TPAs in all pasta samples. TPA (functional GF pasta—10% sub.): 186.80 µg/g TPA (durum wheat pasta): 156.99 µg/g TPA (functional GF pasta—5% sub.): 123.53 µg/g TPA (pasta produced with commercial GF flour): 11.83 µg/g Control and functional pasta also differed in the phenolic profile. |
Menga et al. [48] | ||
| GF pasta (from a blend of rice and field bean flour) added with pear prickly fruit (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) in different amounts (2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5% and 15%) | Pasta samples enriched with pear prickly fruit were rich in several phenolic acids, namely protocatechuic, caffeic, syryngic, 4-OH-benzoic, vanilic, gentisic, trans-sinapic, cis-sinapic, p-coumaric, ferulic, isoferulic, m-coumaric, 3,4-dimetoxycinnamic, and salicylic acids. The higher was the addition of pear prickly fruit, the higher was the content of phenolic acids. The dominant acid was isoferulic. |
Oniszczuk et al. [49] | ||
| GF pasta (from a blend of rice and field bean flour) added with chestnut fruit (Castanea sativa Mill.) in different amounts (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%) | TPA content (10%): 38.93 µg/g dm TPA content (20%): 46.98 µg/g dm TPA content (30%): 51.47 µg/g dm TPA content (40%): 56.59 µg/g dm TPA content (50%): 65.01 µg/g dm The content of each phenolic acid also increased at the higher addition of chestnut fruit, with the exception of 4-hydroxy-benzoic and salicylic acids. |
Oniszczuk et al. [50] | ||
| Raw material processing, pasta-making and pasta cooking | Debranning | Pasta enriched with a debranning fraction from purple wheat (25%) | Phenolic compounds in wheat flour and semolina were negligible compared to the debranning fraction from purple wheat. In pasta samples TPC was lower than it was expected. This was possibly due to the degradation of phenolics during the pasta-making process. |
Abbasi et al. [51] |
| Pasta enriched with the first and the second debranning fraction from purple wheat | Anthocyanin content (pasta enriched with the 1st debranning fraction): 67.9 µg/g dm Anthocyanin content (pasta added with the 2nd debranning fraction): 60 µg/g dm Anthocyanin content (control pasta with bran addition): 28 µg/g dm |
Zanoletti et al. [52] | ||
| Spaghetti enriched (30%) with debranning fractions of durum wheat | In raw samples— Free PAs were higher in the control pasta than in functional pasta. Conjugated PAs (functional pasta): 59.4 mg/kg dm Conjugated PAs (control pasta): 21.6 mg/kg dm Bound PAs (functional pasta): 650.0 mg/kg dm Bound PAs (control pasta): 27.2 mg/kg dm Conjugated TPC (functional pasta): 110.7 mg/kg dm Conjugated TPC (control pasta): 31.4 mg/kg dm Bound TPC (functional pasta): 1308.4 mg/kg dm Bound TPC (control pasta): 156.9 mg/kg dm In cooked samples— ↑ level of PAs, whichever form was considered ↓ free and conjugated TPC ↑ level of bound phenolic compound |
Ciccoritti et al. [53] | ||
| Micronization | Pasta added with micronized fractions | In raw functional pasta— Conjugated PAs: 36.8 mg/kg dm Bound PAs: 357.3 mg/kg dm Conjugated TPs: 75.8 mg/kg dm Bound TPs: 113.3 mg/kg dm In cooked functional pasta (with respect to raw samples)— ↑ free PAs and conjugated PAs ↓ bound PAs ↓ conjugated TPs ↑ bound TPs |
Ciccoritti et al. [53] | |
| Pasta added with micronized fractions | Micronization preserved the content of phenolic acids, while conventional milling determined 89% decrease from seeds to cooked durum wheat pasta | Martini et al. [54] | ||
| Cereal germination | Spaghetti formulated by using 30% dry tartary buckwheat sprouts | In raw samples— TPC (raw tartary buckwheat spaghetti): 3.7 mg GAE/g TPC (100% semolina spaghetti): 0.3 mg GAE/g In cooked samples— TPC (raw tartary buckwheat spaghetti): 2.2 mg GAE/g TPC (100% semolina spaghetti): 0.2 mg GAE/g |
Merendino et al. [55] | |
| Legume germination | Pasta prepared with sprouted chickpea flour | TPC (sprouted chickpea pasta): 8.4 mg GAE/g TPC (non-sprouted chickpea pasta): 7.3 mg GAE/g |
Bruno et al. [56] | |
| Extrusion and Extrusion-cooking | GF precooked rice-yellow pea pasta | ↑ TPC at higher screw speed (80 rpm) | Bouasla et al. [57] | |
| GF precooked pasta from roasted buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench and F. tataricum Gaertner) flour | Highest level of benzoic acid derivatives (i.e., gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, 4-hydroxybenzoic and salicylic acids) at 100 rpm extruder screw speed and 32% flour moisture content. Highest content in cinnamic acid derivatives (i.e., trans-caffeic, trans-p-coumaric, cis-p-coumaric and cis-ferulic acids) at 60 rpm extruder screw speed and 30% of flour moisture |
Oniszczuk et al. [58] | ||
| Barley pasta | ↓ TPC after extrusion | De Paula et al. [59] | ||
| Cooking | Barley pasta | TPAs were not greatly affected by cooking | De Paula et al. [59] | |
| Whole wheat | ↑ free TPC | Podio et al. [60] | ||
| GF pasta (i.e., pasta enriched with black rice, chickpea, red lentil, sorghum, amaranth and quinoa) | In raw GF pasta— Bound TPC > Free TPC Bound TPC (sorghum GF pasta): 7.58 mg GAE/100 g Bound TPC (quinoa GF pasta): 32.68 mg GAE/100 g In cooked GF pasta— Free TPC > Bound TPC Free TPC (black rice pasta): 27.27 mg GAE/100 g Free TPC (quinoa pasta): 19.27 mg GAE/100 g |
Rocchetti et al. [61] |
↓: decrease; ↑: increase; dm: dry matter; FAE: Ferulic Acid Equivalents; fw: fresh weight; GAE: Gallic Acid Equivalents; GF: Gluten-free; PAs: Phenolic Acids; QE: Quercetin Equivalents; TFC: Total Flavonoid Content; TPA(s): Total Phenolic Acid(s); TPC: Total Phenolic Content; TPs: Total Phenolics.