Table 3.
Bioaccessibility studies on phenolic compounds in pasta.
| Pasta Formulation | Phenolic Compounds Analysed | In Vitro Methods | Main Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pasta produced with two varieties of whole wheat flour (Triticum aestivum L.) | TPC, 6G8AA, 8G6AA, cFA, ChDP, DFA (Isomers 1–12), FAD, HBADG, HBAG, HGPBA, pCoA, pCoFP, tFA, TFA | OD: human saliva, homogenization, pH adjustment to 2. GD: addition of pepsin solution (pepsin + 0.1 M HCl) to the homogenate; incubation with shaking for 2 h at 37 °C. ID and DIA: addition of a pancreatin/porcine bile solution and dialysis for 3 h at 37 °C. |
After OD: release of 4.5–11% of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta (depending on the variety). After GD: ↑ (344–370%) of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. After ID: ↑ (340–360%) of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. After DIA: ↑ (~140%) of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. Hydroxybenzoic acid diglucoside, hydroxybenzoic acid glucoside and trans-ferulic acid were the main compounds quantified in DIA samples. |
Podio et al. [60] |
| Pasta from wheat flour fortified with partially-deoiled chia flour | QA, SA I/H, CTA, FTA, Try, CAH, CA, SA E/B/L, SF, RA, SA C, MeRA, MeQ | OD: human saliva; homogenization; pH adjustment to 2. GD: pepsin solution (pepsin + 0.1 M HCl) added to the homogenate; incubation with shaking for 2 h at 37 °C. ID and DIA: addition of a pancreatin/porcine bile solution and dialysis for 3 h at 37 °C. |
After OD: release of 50% of the TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. After GD and ID: ↑ (300–500%) of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. After DIA: ↑ (~50%) of TPC found in cooked supplemented pasta. |
Pigni et al. [103] |
| Pasta produced with durum wheat semolina, red grape marc (RGM) and transglutaminase (TG) | TPC | GD: porcine pepsin; pH = 2.2–2.4; incubation with shaking for 1 h at 37 °C. ID: addition of porcine bile acid, pancreatin, α-amylase; pH = 7.2–7.6; treatment with nitrogen gas and shaking at 37 °C in a water bath for 2 h. |
Bioaccessible TP in RGM/TG pasta vs control: 5.53 ± 0.61 vs. 4.16 ± 0.50 mg GAE/g dm | Marinelli et al. [104] |
| Pasta enriched with fruits from Rubus and Ribes genus | TPC | Based on the static method proposed by INFOGEST’s scientists [30] | ↑ (260%) of TPC (raspberry- and boysenberry-enriched pasta). ↑ (360%) of TPC (red- and blackcurrant enriched pasta). |
Bustos et al. [105] |
| GF pasta formulated with blue maize, chickpea and unripe plantain flours | FPCs and TPC | OD: food was chewed for 15 s; each person rinsed his/her mouth with 5 mL of phosphate buffer. GD: HCl-KCl buffer; pH = 1.25; pepsin solution; incubation at 40 °C in a water bath for 60 min. ID: addition of a mixture of enzymes, incubated for 1 h at 37 °C in a water bath with constant agitation. DIA: dialysis tubing; pancreatic α-amylase solution; incubation at 37 °C. |
After OD: release of FPCs. After GD: ↑ TPC release at the increase of blue maize flour percentage. After ID: release of 40% TPC. |
Camelo-Méndez et al. [106] |
| GF pasta produced with white and brown sorghum | TPC | OD: simulated salivary fluid as reported in [108], sample disrupted in a Teflon pestle, incubated for 2 min at 37 °C. GD: simulated stomach fluid as reported in [108]; pH adjusted to 3; incubation for 2 h at 37°C. ID: simulated duodenal fluid as reported in [108]; pH adjusted to 7; incubation for 3 h at 37°C. |
Phenolic compound bioaccessibility of white and brown sorghum GF pasta was 2.9- and 2.4-fold higher than in cooked pasta, respectively. | Palavecino et al. [41] |
| GF pasta produced with black rice, chickpea, red lentil, sorghum, amaranth and quinoa | TPC Flavonoids Lignans Stilbenes |
Pre-incubation step with digestive enzymes. In vitro large intestine fermentation process. |
After the large intestine fermentation process: - Flavonoid bioaccessibility: <1% - Hydroxycinnamic acid bioaccessibility: 0.6% to 8.6% (at 0 h), 0.6% to 1.6% (at 8 h) and 0.7% to 5.5% (at 24 h) - Lignan bioaccessibility: furofurans (very low); dibenzylbutyrolactones (2.7–12.2%); tyrosols and alkylresorcinols (the most bioaccessible). |
Rocchetti et al. [107] |
↑: increase; 6G8AA: 6-C-glucosyl-8-C-arabinosyl-apigenin; 8G6AA: 8-C-Glucosyl-6-C-arabinosyl-apigenin; CA: Caffeic acid; CAH: Caffeic acid hexoside; ChDP: Chrysoeriol-6,8-di-C-pentoside; cFA: cis-ferulic acid; CTA: Caftaric acid; DFA (Isomers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12): Diferulic acid; DIA: dialysate; FAD: Ferulic acid derivative; FPCs: Free Phenolic Compounds; FTA: Fertaric acid; GD: gastric digestion; HBADG: Hydroxybenzoic acid diglucoside; HBAG: Hydroxybenzoic acid glucoside; HGPBA: 2-Hydroxy-3-O-β-d-glucopyranosylbenzoic acid; ID: intestinal digestion; MeQ: Methylquercetin; MeRA: Methylrosmarinate; OD: oral digestion; pCoA: p-coumaric acid; pCoFP: p-Coumaroyl-feruloylputrescine; QA: Quinic acid; RA: Rosmarinic acid; SA C: Salvianolic acid C; SA E/B/L: Salvianolic acid E/B/L; SA I/H: Salvianolic acid I/H; SF: Salviaflaside; tFA: trans-ferulic acid; TFA: Triferulic acid; TPC: Total Polyphenol Content; Try: Tryptophan.