Table 3.
Factors associated with poor glycaemic control among the participants.
| Variables | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 0.97 (0.95-0.99) | 0.002∗ | 0.95 (0.91-0.98) | 0.002∗ |
| Gender: | ||||
| Male | 1 | |||
| Female | 0.75 (0.46-1.22) | 0.24 | — | — |
| Ethnicity: | ||||
| Malays | 1 | |||
| Non-Malays | 1.13 (0.68-1.89) | 0.64 | — | — |
| Marital status: | ||||
| Married | 1 | |||
| Single/divorce/widow/widower | 1.72 (0.98-3.04) | 0.59 | — | — |
| Education status: | ||||
| No education/primary education | 1 | 1 | ||
| Secondary education | 2.33 (1.15-4.72) | 0.019∗ | 1.73 (0.63-4.79) | 0.29 |
| Tertiary education | 1.71 (0.84-3.44) | 0.14 | 0.73 (0.24-2.19) | 0.57 |
| Employment status: | ||||
| Employed | 1 | |||
| Unemployed/retired | 1.22 (0.70-2.11) | 0.48 | — | — |
| Monthly income: | ||||
| <RM 3,000 | 1 | |||
| ≥RM 3,000 | 1.43 (0.85-2.41) | 0.18 | — | — |
| Religion: | ||||
| Islam | 1 | |||
| Other religions | 1.03 (0.61-1.74) | 0.91 | — | — |
| Self-perceived social support: | ||||
| Poor | 1 | |||
| Moderate | 0 .44 (0.09-2.30) | 0.33 | — | — |
| Good | 0.50 (0.11-2.36) | 0.38 | — | — |
| Cigarette smoking: | ||||
| Non-smoker | 1 | |||
| Smoker | 0.86 (0.30-2.49) | 0.78 | — | — |
| Alcohol use: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.21 (0.52-2.82) | 0.67 | — | — |
| Recreational drug use: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 0.56 (0.06-5.06) | 0.60 | — | — |
| Types of diabetes mellitus: | ||||
| Gestational diabetes | 1 | |||
| Type 1 diabetes | 2.00 (0.15-26.73) | 0.60 | — | — |
| Type 2 diabetes | 0.42 (0.05-3.64) | 0.43 | — | — |
| Duration of diabetes mellitus | 1.05 (1.02-1.08) | 0.002∗ | 1.11 (1.06-1.16) | <0.001∗ |
| Frequency of clinic visits | 0.95 (0.86-1.05) | 0.35 | — | — |
| Comorbid hypertension: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 0.99 (0.57-1.74) | 0.98 | — | — |
| Comorbid hypercholesterolemia: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.03 (0.63-1.67) | 0.92 | — | — |
| Comorbid ischaemic heart diseases: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.16 (0.67-1.99) | 0.60 | — | — |
| Comorbid cerebrovascular incident: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 0.95 (0.40-2.25) | 0.90 | — | — |
| Comorbid renal diseases: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 0.87 (0.45-1.68) | 0.68 | — | — |
| Number of diabetic medications: | ||||
| 1 type | 1 | 1 | ||
| 2 types | 1.73 (0.97-3.10) | 0.064 | 1.10 (0.50-2.43) | 0.82 |
| 3 types | 3.11 (1.32-7.30) | 0.009∗ | 1.60 (0.55-4.70) | 0.39 |
| 4 types | 5.12 (0.61-42.97) | 0.13 | 0.90 (0.07-10.91) | 0.93 |
| Insulin therapy: | ||||
| Yes | 1 | 1 | ||
| No | 0.32 (0.19-0.55) | <0.001∗ | 0.52 (0.24-1.15) | 0.11 |
| Number of medications taken daily | 1.00 (0.91-1.10) | 0.96 | — | — |
| Number of days of missed medication | 1.39 (1.11-1.73) | 0.004∗ | 1.78 (1.21-2.61) | 0.003∗ |
| Number of days of reduced medication intake | 1.12 (0.97-1.28) | 0.12 | — | — |
| Self-perceived diabetic control: | ||||
| Poor | 1 | |||
| Moderate | 2.68 (0.77-9.38) | 0.12 | — | — |
| Good | 0.91 (0.30-2.75) | 0.86 | — | — |
| Body mass index (BMI) | 1.02 (0.96-1.07) | 0.58 | — | — |
| Obesity status: | ||||
| Not obese (BMI < 25) | 1 | |||
| Overweight (BMI = 25-29.9) | 1.02 (0.52-2.02) | 0.95 | — | — |
| Obese (BMI ≥ 30) | 1.48 (0.71-3.09) | 0.29 | — | — |
| Anxiety disorders: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.61 (0.62-4.13) | 0.32 | — | — |
| Depressive disorders: | ||||
| No | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.42 (0.74-2.70) | 0.29 | — | — |
| Personality traits (BFI): | ||||
| Extraversion | 1.16 (0.72-1.86) | 0.55 | — | — |
| Agreeableness | 0.90 (0.51-1.60) | 0.73 | — | — |
| Conscientiousness | 0.94 (0.55-1.59) | 0.82 | — | — |
| Neuroticism | 1.15 (0.74-1.77) | 0.54 | — | — |
| Openness | 1.27 (0.78-2.07) | 0.35 | — | — |
| Overall perception of QOL | 0.60 (0.42-0.86) | 0.005∗ | 0.37 (0.20-0.67) | 0.001∗ |
| Overall perception of health | 0.83 (0.59-1.15) | 0.26 | — | — |
| WHOQOL-BREF scores: | ||||
| Physical health QOL | 1.09 (0.99-1.21) | 0.082 | — | — |
| Psychological QOL | 0.95 (0.84-1.06) | 0.35 | — | — |
| Social QOL | 0.95 (0.86-1.05) | 0.31 | — | — |
| Environmental QOL | 0.95 (0.85-1.07) | 0.38 | — | — |
∗Statistical significance at p < 0.05.