Fig. 2.

Mechanisms underlying MSC-based therapy. MSCs rescue and/or repair injured cells via differentiation into replacement cell types and by modulating immune responses. The immunomodulatory modes of MSCs include paracrine activity, cell–cell contact and interaction, mitochondrial transfer, and release of extracellular vesicles. The mechanisms involved in repair are not equivalent and MSCs can adapt their therapeutic effects according to diverse local microenvironments. MSCs mesenchymal stem cells