Table 1.
Examples of DNA damage signaling induced by vesicants.
| Vesicant | System (treatment concentration, exposure time) | Responses | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| CEES (half mustard) | TK6 cells (100 μM, 1–24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of p53 (S15) and Chk2 (T68) | Jowsey et al., 2009 |
| JB6 and HaCaT cells (0.25–1 mM, 0.5–4 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of ATM (S1981), ATR (S428), CHK1 (S345), CHK2 (T68), Cdc25C (S216), Cdc2 (Y15), and Cdk2 (Y15) | Tewari-Singh et al., 2010 | |
| RAW264.7 cells (0.05–1 mM, 24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of ATM (S1981), ATR (S428), p53 (S15), and H2AX (S139) | Sagar et al., 2017 | |
| EpiDerm-FT™ (a human skin equivalent) (0.1–1 mM, 15 min-24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of H2AX (S139) | Black et al., 2010 | |
| Nitrogen mustard (Mechlorethamine) | JB6 cells (0.75 μM, 0.5–24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of DNA-PK (S2056), H2AX (S139),and p53 (S15) | Inturi et al., 2014 |
| HCE cells (50–100 μM, 12–48 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of H2AX (S139) and p53 (S15) | Goswami et al., 2016 | |
| A549 cells (1–50 μM, 0.5–24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of ATM (S1981), Chk2 (T68), H2AX (S139), and p53 (S15) | Jan et al., 2019 | |
| SKH1 mouse skin (3.2 mg, 12–120 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of p53 (S15) and H2AX (S139) | Kumar et al, 2015 | |
| Sulfur mustard | TK6 cells (0.1–1 μM, 1–24 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of ATM (S1981), ATR (S428), p53 (S15), CHK1 (S317), CHK2 (T68), ↑ p53 | Jowsey et al., 2012 |
| Hela, HCT 116, HEK 293, SH-SY5Y and A549 cells (25 μM 5 h) | ↑ phosphorylation of CHK1 (S296 and S317) | Jowsey and Blain, 2015 | |
| SKH1 mouse skin (1.4 g/m3 vapor, 6 min) | ↑ phosphorylation of H2AX (S139) | Joseph et al., 2014 | |
| Balb/c mice (bone marrow) (15–40 mg/kg s.c. injection) | ↑ phosphorylation of H2AX (S139) | Zhang et al., 2017 |