Table 3.

Biological, chemical and manufacturing characteristics of nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles	Advantages	Disadvantages	Manufacturing Limitations
Liposomes	Wide size range Ag encapsulated or on surface Hydrophobic or hydrophilic Ag FDA approved/Non-toxic Biodegradable	Reproducibility issues Oxidative Degradation	High cost
Polymeric Nanoparticles	Ag encapsulated or on surface Biodegradable FDA approved/Non-toxic Prolonged release of antigen	Ag degradation Ag burst release	Low scale-up
Hydrogels, Nanogels	Ag encapsulated Cell targeting with adhesion ligands Biodegradable	Difficult to handle Mechanically weak	Reproducibility Difficult to sterilize
Micelles	Biocompatible Biodgradable Easy to prepare and chemical modify	Highly unstable Must be fresh Cannot be stored	Reproducibility costs
Dendrimers	Hydrophobic Ags Tunable chemical and physical properties Cell targeting with adhesion ligands	No hydrophilic Ags Toxicity	High cost
Inorganic Nanoparticles(e.g., Gold NPs)	Size control Low cytotoxicity	Non-biodegradable Coating required	Low scale-up High cost
Mesoporous Silicas	Uniform pore diameter High surface area Electrostatic immobilization Suitable for covalent immobilization	pH sensitivity	High cost
VLPs	Prevention of off-target effects Stability	Immunogenicity of capsid Low encapsidation efficiency	Low stability
CPPS	Selective targeting Intracellular delivery Low toxicity Bioaction High stability	Resistance to drug Aggregation Endosomal entrapment	No limitation