Figure 2.

Vascular calcification and its association with macrophages. In vascular calcification progression, M1 sustained expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the release of calcifying matrix vesicles may promote calcification. Osteoblast-like/calcifying vascular cells predominating within lesions have the same pro-calcification effect. However, M2 macrophages contribute to resolving chronic inflammation, and osteoclast-like cells differentiated from macrophages are predominantly infiltrated with lesions may facilitate the regression of vascular calcification.