Table 5.
Effects of VD on infection, pathogenesis, and treatment outcome by other viruses.
| Reference | Experimental System | VD Tested or Status | VD Concentration | Effects | Description of Effects | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Herpesviruses | [158] | HeLa cells infected with HSV-1 | 25(OH)D3 and 1,25(OH)2D3 | 1 µM and 100 nM | Positive | Decreased HSV-1 titer |
| [160] | 547 patients | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <50 nmol/L | Positive | Increased incidence of opportunistic CMV infection | |
| [161] | 88 chronic hemodialysis patients | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <30 ng/ml | Positive | Lower VZV-IgG | |
| [162] | 139 patients | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <25 nmol/L | Positive | Increased incidence of CMV disease | |
| [163] | 373 renal transplant recipients | 1,25(OH)2D3 deficiency | <20 pg/ml | Positive | Increased acute transplant rejection caused by CMV infection | |
| [165] | 482 with multiple sclerosis | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <20 ng/ml | Positive | Increased EBV loads | |
| [166] | 50 patients | 25(OH)D3 | 23.8 nmol/L | Positive | Increased recurrent herpes labialis | |
| [159] | human foreskin fibroblasts infected with CMV AD169 | VD3, 25(OH)D3, and 1,25(OH)2D3 | 100 µM | Negative | No effect on CMV replication | |
| Dengue virus | [167] | U937-DC-SIGN and THP1 macrophages infected with DENV-2 | 1,25(OH)2D3 | 1 µM | Positive | Inhibition of inflammation caused by dengue virus infection |
| [168] | Mouse macrophage infected with DENV-2 | VD3 | 0.1 nM | Positive | Inhibition of dengue infection | |
| [169] | PBMC from 30 VD3-fed healthy individuals infected with DENV-2 | VD3 supplementation | Not measured | Positive | Resistance to dengue infection and inhibition of inflammation | |
| [170] | Monocyte-derived dendritic cells from 30 VD3-fed individuals infected with DENV-2 | VD3 supplementation | Not measured | Positive | Resistance to dengue infection | |
| [171] | 110 dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome patients | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <50 nmol/L | Positive | Decreased dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome | |
| Rotavirus | [172] | IPEC-J2 cells infected with porcine rotavirus | VD3 | 0.1 µM | Positive | Inhibition of rotavirus replication |
| [173] | 70 patients | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <20 ng/ml | Positive | Increased rotaviral diarrhea | |
| [174] | IPEC-J2 cells infected with porcine rotavirus | VD3 | 5 µM | Positive | Inhibition of rotavirus infection | |
| [175] | IPEC-J2 cells or pigs infected with porcine rotavirus | 1,25(OH)2D3 | 0.1 µM 5000 IU | Positive | Inhibition of rotavirus infection | |
| PEDV | [176] | Pigs infected with PEDV | VD3 supplementation | 115 µg/kg | Positive | Alleviation of intestinal damage by PEDV infection |
| HPV | [177] | 2353 sexually active women | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <20 ng/ml | Positive | Increased cervicovaginal HPV prevalence |
| [178] | 67 women with systemic lupus erythematosus | 25(OH)D3 deficiency | <20 ng/ml | Negative | No effect on HPV infection |
The abbreviations used are as follows. DC-SIGN; dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin, IPEC; intestinal porcine enterocytes, PEDV; porcine epidemic diarrhea virus.