Table 1.
Influence of digestible and non-digestible carbohydrates on gut microbiota (GM).
| Reference | Study Type | Population | Dietary Sources of Carbohydrate | Influence on Gut Microbiota |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fehlbaum et al. 2018 [40] | in vitro study | screening platform (i-screen) inoculated with adult fecal microbiota | a different source of dietary fiber (DF): FOS (chicory root), inulin (chicory root), alpha-GOS (peas), beta-GOS (lactose), XOS-C (corn cobs), XOS-S (sugar cane fiber), and β-glucan (oat flour) | β-glucan induced ↑ Prevotella and Roseburia and ↑ SCFA propionate production. Inulin and GOS, XOS induced ↑ Bifidobacteria all DF had a prebiotic activity with β-glucan being dominant |
| Do et al. 2018 [41] | animal experimental study | eight-weeks-old male C57BL/6J mice (n = 36) | normal diet (ND), HGD (high glucose diet), HFrD (high fructose diet), or HFD (high-fat diet) for 12 weeks | HGD and HFrD caused ↑ Akkermansia, ↓ microbial diversity (↓ Bacteroidetes, ↑ Proteobacteria) vs. HFD group |
| Sen et al. 2011 [42] | animal experimental study | Sprague-Dawley rat (n = 12) | HF/HSD, LF/HSD, or control low-fat/low-sugar diet (LF/LSD) for 4 weeks |
HF/HSD and LF/HSD-fed caused gut microbiota dysbiosis (↑ Clostridia and Bacilli, ↓ Lactobacillus spp), ↓ bacterial diversity, ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteriodetes ratio LF/HS ↑ Proteobacteria (Sutterella and Bilophila) HF/HSD and LF/HSD increased LPS |
| Whelan et al. 2005 [43] | a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial | healthy subjects (n = 10) | standard enteral formula vs. formula supplemented with FOS (5.1 g/L) and fiber (8.9 g/L) as a sole source of nutrition for 14 days |
FOS/fiber formula led to ↑ Bifidobacteria and ↓ Clostridia and induced higher concentrations of total SCFA, acetate, and propionate |
| Martinez et al. 2010 [44] | a double-blind, crossover trial | heathy human (n = 10) | crackers containing either RS2 (resistant starch type 2), RS4, or native stRS types 2 (RS2) and 4 (RS4) for 3 weeks |
RS4 but not RS2 induced significantly, reversible ↑ Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes and ↓ Firmicutes. RS4 induced ↑ Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Parabacteroides distasonis, RS2 induced ↑ proportions of Ruminococcus bromii and Eubacterium rectale |
| Davis et al. 2011 [45] | single-blinded study | healthy human subjects (n = 18) | GOS-containing products with four doses (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 g GOS) for 12 weeks |
↑ Bifidobacterium (at the expense of Bacteroides) with a dose-dependent manner |
| Walker et al., 2011 [46] | randomized crossover trial | overweight adult men (n = 14) | HRSD (high in resistant starch diet), NPS (diet high in non-starch polysaccharides), WL (reduced CHO diet) vs. control diet for 10 weeks |
HRSD ↑ Ruminococcus bromii and Eubacterium rectale |
| Francavilla et al. 2012 [47] | observational prospective study | infants with cow’s milk allergy vs. control (n = 28) | formula with no lactose for 2 months followed by an identical lactose-containing formula for an additional 2 months | ↑ Lactobacillus/Bifidobacteria and ↓ Bacteroides/Clostridia ↑ SCFAs |
| Hald et al. 2016 [48] | randomized crossover study | adults with metabolic syndrome (n = 19) | a diet enriched with AX (arabinoxylan) and RS2 (resistant starch type 2) vs. low-fiber Western-style diet for 4-weeks |
AX, RS2 caused ↓ total species diversity, ↑ heterogeneity of bacterial communities both between and within subjects, induced ↑ Bifidobacterium, ↑ total SCFAs, ↑ acetate, ↑ butyrate, ↓ isobutyrate, and ↓ isovalerate |
| Nicolucci et al. 2017 [38] | double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial | children (n = 30; 7–12 years) with overweight/obesity (>85th percentile of BMI) but otherwise healthy | oligofructose-enriched inulin (OI); 8 g/day; n = 22) diet vs. maltodextrin placebo diet (isocaloric dose, n = 20) for 16 weeks |
↓ body weight z-score (3.1%), percent body fat (2.4%), percent trunk fat (3.8%), and IL-6, TG level in OI group ↑ Bifidobacterium spp. and ↓ Bacteroides vulgatus in the OI group |
| Mardinoglu et al. 2018 [49] | short-term intervention study | obese subjects with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (n = 10) | isocaloric low-CHOs diet (30 g/d) with increased protein content by 14 days | rapid reduction (after 24 h) of fiber-degrading bacteria, ↑ Lactococcus, Eggerrthella, and Streptococcus↓ SCFAs level |
| Jones et al. 2019 [50] | observational prospective study | obese Hispanic adolescent (12–19 years) (n = 52) | the mean daily intakes of energy, fiber, protein, fat, CHO, sugars, and fructose assessment with the use of 24-h diet recall | high fructose in the diet was associated with ↓ Eubacterium eligens and Streptococcus thermophilus |
Alpha-linked galactooligosaccharides (alpha-GOS), arabinoxylan (AX, beta-linked galactooligosaccharides (beta-GOS), carbohydrates (CHOs), dietary fiber (DF), HFD (high-fat diet), HFrD (high fructose diet), HGD (high glucose diet), HRSD (high in resistant starch diet), oligofructose-enriched inulin (OI), short chain fatty acid (SCFA), xylooligosaccharides from corn cobs (XOS-C), xylooligosaccharides from sugar cane fiber (XOS-S), normal diet (ND), a diet high in non-starch (NPS).