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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 May 17.
Published in final edited form as: Neuropsychol Rev. 2019 Sep 11;29(3):357–385. doi: 10.1007/s11065-019-09411-w

Table 2.

Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) Evidence Profile for neuroimaging, neurophysiological and neuropsychological studies

Outcome Certainty assessment
Certainty
No. of studies Study design Risk of bias Inconsistency Indirectness Imprecision Other considerations
Behavioural inhibition only 2 observational unclear b not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Brain electrical activity3 13 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Decision-making 7 observational serious a seriousc not serious not serious none VERY LOW
Delay discounting 2 observational unclear b not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Expressive language 4 observational not serious not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Functional neural activity1 10 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Immediate memory 11 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Inhibition 18 observational seriousa seriousc not serious not serious none VERY LOW
Long term memory 9 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Mental flexibility 12 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Neural structure, connectivity2 13 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Planning 1 observational unclear b not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Processing speed 18 observational serious a seriousc not serious not serious none VERY LOW
Recent memory 7 observational not serious seriousc not serious not serious none VERY LOW
Receptive language 2 observational unclear b not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Recognition of emotions 1 observational unclear b not serious not serious seriousd strong association VERY LOW
Sustained attention 13 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
Visual perceptual 3 observational not serious not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Visuoconstructional 4 observational not serious not serious not serious seriousd none VERY LOW
Working memory 20 observational not serious not serious not serious not serious none LOW
1

BOLD; fMRI

2

Structural MRI studies (volume, surface area, cortical thickness), structural DTI studies (FA), structural MRS

3

EEG, MEG, ERP

a

Egger’s test p < 0.05

b

A minimum of three studies are needed to calculate risk of publication bias using Egger’s linear regression method

c

Unexplained heterogeneity of results was assessed through examination of variance in point estimates across studies, and the Q, I2, tau and tau2 statistics in the meta-analysis, in addition to examination of large differences in effect size

d

The number of participants included in the review was smaller than the required number of participants generated from a sample size calculator for a single adequately powered trial