TABLE 5.
Source of values for (H-ULs) for vitamins and minerals: IOM compared with EFSA1
| Nutrient | IOM UL – Children2,3 | IOM UL – Adults3,4 | EFSA UL – Children2,5 | EFSA UL – Adults4,5 | H-UL decision | H-UL adverse effect6 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A, μg/d | 600–2800 | 3000 | 800–2600 | 3000 | Use EFSA | Teratogenicity |
| Vitamin C, mg/d | 400–1800 | 2000 | No UL | No UL | Use IOM | Gastrointestinal effects |
| Vitamin D, μg/d | 63–100 | 100 | 50–100 | 100 | Use IOM | High serum calcium |
| Vitamin E, mg/d | 200–800 | 1000 | 100–260 | 300 | Use EFSA | Blood clotting |
| Niacin, mg/d | 10–30 | 35 | 2–8 | 10 | Use EFSA | Flushing |
| Vitamin B-6, mg/d | 30–80 | 100 | 5–20 | 25 | Use EFSA | Neurotoxicity |
| Folate, μg/d | 300–800 | 1000 | 200–800 | 1000 | Use EFSA | Neuropathy if B-12-deficient |
| Choline, g/d | 1.0–3.0 | 3.5 | No UL | No UL | Use IOM | Hypotension, fishy body odor |
| Calcium, g/d | 2.5–3.0 | 2.0–2.5 | No UL | 2.5 | Use IOM | Milk alkali syndrome |
| Phosphorus, g/d | 3.0–4.0 | 3.0–4.0 | No UL | No UL | Use IOM | Elevated serum P |
| Copper, mg/d | 1.0–8.0 | 10.0 | 1.0–4.0 | 5.0 | Use EFSA | Liver function |
| Fluoride, mg/d | 1.3–10.0 | 10.0 | 1.5–7.0 | 7.0 | Use EFSA | Bone fractures |
| Manganese, mg/d | 2.0–9.0 | 11 | No UL | No UL | Use IOM | Blood manganese, neurotoxicity |
| Molybdenum, μg/d | 300–1700 | 2000 | 100–500 | 600 | Use EFSA | Reproductive toxicity |
| Iodine, μg/d | 200–900 | 1100 | 200–500 | 600 | Use EFSA | Changes in thyroid hormones |
| Iron, mg/d | 40–45 | 45 | No UL | No UL | Use IOM | Gastrointestinal distress |
| Magnesium, mg/d | 65–350 | 350 | 250 | 250 | Use EFSA | Mild diarrhea |
| Selenium, μg/d | 90–400 | 400 | 60–250 | 300 | Use EFSA | Selenosis (e.g., loss of hair and nails) |
| Zinc, mg/d | 7–34 | 40 | 7–22 | 25 | Use EFSA | Copper status |
See Table 6 for a summary of the final H-UL values. EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; H-UL, harmonized upper level; IOM, Institute of Medicine; UL, tolerable upper intake level.
Age ranges for children are 1–17 y for EFSA and 1–18 y for IOM.
IOM UL notes: magnesium as pharmacological agent only; vitamin A as preformed vitamin A only; vitamin E as any form of supplemental α-tocopherol; for vitamin E, niacin, and folate, applies only to synthetic forms.
H-ULs for pregnancy and lactation are from the same source as H-ULs for adults or adolescents; EFSA did not set ULs for niacin or copper during pregnancy or lactation.
EFSA UL notes: vitamin A applies to retinol and retinyl esters and does not apply to postmenopausal women as it may not provide an adequate margin of safety; magnesium applies to readily dissociable Mg salts and MgO in food supplements, water, or added to foods and does not apply to children aged 1–3 y; niacin UL applies only to nicotinic acid (ULs for nicotinamide range from 150 to 700 mg/d for children and 900 mg/d for adults).