Figure 3.

Mechanisms by which uremic toxins and advanced glycation end products (AGE) induce pro-ageing effects. Both uremic toxins and AGE have adverse effects on mitochondrial function including formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) but also structural disturbances. They impair anti-ageing defenses of the organism, and induce inflammation, as well as cellular senescence. All effects result in an adverse, pro-ageing milieu caused by uremic toxins and AGE. Light blue arrows: inducers; red arrows: inhibitors. ATF4: activating transcription factor 4, ROS: reactive oxygen species, SA-β-gal: senescence-associated beta-galactosidase.