Table 2.

Proposed agents against COVID-19

Classes	Drug	Pharmacologic categorya	Probable anti-COVID-19 mechanisma
Antiparasitic	Chloroquine	Antimalarials	Alkalizes endosomal pH and interferes with virus-endosome fusion (Vincent et al. 2005; Yang et al. 2004) inhibits the glycosylation of ACE2 receptors (Vincent et al. 2005) possesses anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects by inhibition of phospholipase A2 activity and blocking cytokine production and release (Al-Bari 2015)
	Niclosamide	Anthelmintic	Inhibition of S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (SKP2) and increase of autophagy (Gassen et al. 2019)
	Nitazoxanide	Anthelmintic, anti-protozoal	Amplifying host innate immune antiviral responses by triggering foreign cytoplasmic RNA sensing and type 1 interferon axis (Jasenosky et al. 2019).
Antiviral agents	Indinavir	Anti-HIV	Protease inhibitor: inhibits cleavage of gag-pol polyprotein precursors, which in turn causes the formation of immature, non-infectious viral particles
	Lopinavir	Anti-HIV
	Ritonavir (typically used to boost levels of other protease inhibitors)	Anti-HIV
	Atazanavir	Anti-HIV
	Darunavir	Anti-HIV
	Tipranavir	Anti-HIV
	Fosamprenavir (prodrug)	Anti-HIV	Protease inhibitor: prevents processing of viral gag and gag-pol polyprotein precursors, resulting in the formation of immature noninfectious viral particle
	Abacavir	Anti-HIV	Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor: guanosine analog that inhibits HIV-1 reverse transcriptase by competing with dGTP as substrate, which in turn inhibits viral replication
	Elvitegravir	Anti-HIV	Integrase inhibitor: inhibits catalytic activity of HIV-1 integrase, in turn Inhibits viral replication
	Raltegravir	Anti-HIV
	Remdesivir (prodrug)	research statement	RNA polymerase inhibitor: metabolized into an adenosine nucleotide analog that interferes with the action of virus RNA polymerase
	Favipiravir (prodrug)	Anti-influenza
	Sofosbuvir (prodrug)	Anti-hepacivirus	RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: metabolized into uridine analog triphosphate, an inhibitor of HCV NS5B RNA-dependent polymerase; suppresses viral replication
	Ribavirin	Anti-hepacivirus	RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: inhibits the initiation and elongation of RNA fragments by inhibiting polymerase activity, inhibition of viral protein synthesis
Antineoplastic agents	Carfilzomib		Proteasome inhibitor: binds to the n-terminal threonine-containing active sites of the 20s proteasome, the proteolytic core particle within the 26 s proteasome, causes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis
	Bortezomib		Proteasome inhibitor: reversible inhibitor of chymotrypsin-like activity at the 26-s proteasome, causes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis
	Imatinib		Protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitor: ABL fusion kinase inhibitor (Ge et al. 2020)
	Carrizumab		Programmed cell death protein 1 inhibitor: activate the immune system (Syn et al. 2017)
Antibiotics	Azithromycin	Macrolide	Antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects
Neutralizing monoclonal antibody	CR3022	Research statement	Inhibits receptor-binding domain (RBD) of S1 subunit of viral spike glycoprotein (Tian et al. 2020)
	Meplazumab	Anti-asthma	A monoclonal antibody against CD147 and inhibit the interaction of CD147 with spike protein of SARS-CoV2
Immunoglobulins	Human gamma globulin	Immunoglobulins	Improving passive immunity and modulating immune inflammation (Cao et al. 2020b; Zhang et al. 2020b).
	Convalescent plasma	Research statement	Contains neutralizing antibodies that suppress viremia acceleration of infected cell clearance (Chen et al. 2020)
Interferons	IFN β	Interferon type 1	immunomodulatory cytokines (Lin and Young 2014)
	IFN α -2a
	IFN α
Cytokine storm inhibitors	Baricitinib	Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs	Janus kinase (GAK) inhibitor that inhibits clathrin-mediated endocytosis, cytokine release, and inflammation (Richardson et al. 2020).
	Tocilizumab		Monoclonal antibody targeting IL-6 (Zhang et al. 2020a)
	Siltuximab	Antineoplastic	Monoclonal antibody targeting IL-6 (Gritti et al. 2020)
	CVL218	Research statement	Poly-ADP-ribose polymerase 1 (PARP1) inhibition (Ge et al. 2020)

Montelukast, deoxyrhapontin, polydatin, chalcone, disulfiram, carmofur, shikonin, ebselen, tideglusib, PX-12, TDZD-8, cyclosporin A, and cinanserin (Jin et al. 2020) are the other proposed agents against COVID-19 that are not included in the text and this table

ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; dGTP, deoxyguanosine triphosphate

^abased on www.medscape.com, April 2020; www.uptodate.com, March 5, 2020, and mentioned references