Table 3.

Partial list of immunomodulators used for cancer vaccine modalities

Type	Example	Proposed mechanism of action
Cytokine	GM-CSF	mDCs activation → IL-1 & IL-12 → T-cell activation → IFNy16–18
	IL-7	Expansion of CD8+ & CD4+ T cells31
	IL-12	T-cell activation → IFNγ137
	IL-21	Enhanced cytolytic activity of NK & CD8+ T cells → IFNγ34,138
TLR agonist	Imiquimod	pDC activation → IFA-α → mDC maturation → IL-12 → T-cell activation63,64
	CpG	pDC activation → IFA-α → mDC maturation → IL-12 → T-cell activation68
	MPL	mDC activation → IL-12 → T-cell activation → IFNγ68
Costimulation	B7–1	B7–1 → bind CD28 → T-cell activation43
	ICAM-1	ICAM-1 → bind LFA-1 → T-cell activation43
	LFA-3	LFA-3 → bind CD2 → T-cell activation43
	Anti-CTLA-4	Block CTLA-4 binding to B7–1 → reduced costimulatory inhibition43
Chemotherapy	Doxorubicin	Tumor apoptosis → DC activation → T-cell immunity85
Radiotherapy	EBRT	Increased MHC I expression → enhanced CTL-mediated killing93
Ablative therapy	RFA	DC maturation → enhanced TAA presentation → T-cell immunity99
	Cryoablation	Antigen depot → enhanced APC antigen presentation → T-cell immunity102
NSAID	Celecoxib	Increased MHC expression → enhanced TAA presentation → T-cell immunity118
Treg modulation	Denileukin diftitox	Reduced Tregs prevents T-cell downregulation119
Classical adjuvant	Montanide ISA 51 (IFA)	Antigen depot → enhanced APC antigen presentation → T-cell immunity74