Table 1.

Proposed management framework for ecotourism ventures in changing environments.

Source Authors

Ecotourism element	Shock	Effect	Management interventions	Livelihood outcomes
Beneficiaries Marketing Linkages	Reduced international ecotourist visitation	Reduced income from ecotourism	Promoting domestic ecotourism visits Promoting multiple sources of income Promoting favorable relations with the major international tourist source nations	More income to venture Increased community well-being Reduced vulnerability to shock
Beneficiaries Marketing Linkages	International hunting bans	Loss of major source of ecotourism income	Lobbying to have ban removed Diversification to non-consumptive ecotourism activities Promoting multiple sources of income	More income to venture Increased community well-being Improved supply of meat protein and food security More sustainable use of natural resource base Reduced vulnerability to shock
Beneficiaries Marketing Linkages	Exclusion of youth and women	Failure of youths and women to benefit from natural resources management Migration of youth to urban settlements	Promoting the involvement of youth and women in natural resources management Carrying targeted and effective environmental education programmes to raise awareness	Increased community well-being Reduced vulnerability to shock
Beneficiaries Wildlife resources	Human population increase	Competition for land for agricultural and wildlife uses Reduced dividends per capita from trophy hunting	Promoting effective and strong community organization and cohesion Promoting multiple sources of income Diversification to non-consumptive ecotourism activities	Reduced vulnerability to shock More sustainable use of natural resource base
Management system Beneficiaries Linkages	Donor fatigue	Decline in earnings Removal of external capacity building support Increased ineffectiveness of local participatory processes	Developing sustainable self-funding mechanisms Limiting dependence on donors Promoting multiple sources of income	Increased community well-being Reduced vulnerability to shock
Beneficiaries Management system Marketing Accessibility Amenities	Poor macro-economic environment in the country	Reduced ecotourist visitation Hyperinflation Withdrawal of international airlines from the country Failure to maintain roads and amenities Uncompetitive and expensive ecotourism packages Increased incidences of corruption Social disruption	Improved marketing and offering a unique ecotourism experience Implementing effective feedback systems among stakeholders to decrease uncertainties Capacity building in managing ecotourism in periods of hyperinflation Promoting sport hunting	Reduced vulnerability to shock
Beneficiaries Wildlife resources Marketing Linkages Accessibility Amenities Attraction	Climate change	Failure to achieve trophy hunting quota leading to lower revenues Damage of roads, bridges and lodges due to floods Biophysical environmental degradation due to drought	Promoting climate smart ecotourism Applying and lobbying for funds to mitigate climate change effects from international conservation agencies	Reduced vulnerability to shock Increased community well-being