Table 1.

Summary of Findings of Reward and Loss Processing in Antisocial Behavior/Psychopathy in Community and Clinical Samples

Study	Sample	Measure	Task/Reward	Type/Phase	Reward contrast	Results	Loss contrast	Results	Summary
Community/Healthy samples
Bjork, Chen, & Hommer, 2012	n = 31 (18M)	Self-Report PPI	Modified MID (response-dependent and response-independent)	Reward	Reward > Neutral	All Trials:	N/A	N/A	PPI scores positively linked to VS, dorsal ACC, and mesial PFC activity during reward anticipation. Activation for PPI-IA but not PPI-FD mirrored findings for PPI-total.
			Monetary	Anticipation		PPI total: ↑ VS and dorsal ACC
						Response-dependent:
						PPI total: ↑ right VS (r = .38, p < .05) and left VS (r = .52, p < .01)
						PPI-IA: ↑ right VS and dorsal ACC
						PPI-FD: ns
						Response-independent:
						PPI total: ↑ left VS (r = .31, p < .10; trend); ↑ mesial PFC (r = .65, p < .001)
Buckholtz et al., 2010	n= 24 (8M)	Self-Report PPI	MID	Reward	Reward Anticipation > Neutral	PPI-IA: ↑ right VS (r = .63, p = .001)	N/A	N/A	PPI-IA linked to increased VS activity during reward anticipation. Remained significant when controlling for impulsivity.
			Monetary	Anticipation and receipt	Reward Receipt > Neutral	PPI-FD: ns
						PPI-IA: ns
						PPI-FD: ns
Carré, Hyde, Neumann, Viding, & Hariri, 2013	n = 171 (68 M)	Self-Report SRP-SF	Card guessing game	Reward	Reward > Loss	SRP-Lifestyle: ↓ left VS (ß = −.24, p < .05)	N/A	N/A	Lifestyle facet of psychopathy related to decreased VS activity to reward. Antisocial facet of psychopathy related to increased VS activity to reward, but not when controlling for impulsivity
			Monetary	Blocked design		SRP-Antisocial: ↑ left VS (ß =.24, p < .05)
					Reward > Loss, controlling for impulsivity	SRP-Lifestyle: ↓ left VS and (trend) right VS
						SRP-Antisocial: ↑ left VS (trend)
					Reward > Loss, gender analyses	Men: ns
						Women: SRP-Affective: ↑ right VS, B = .014 (006), p = .015; SRP-Lifestyle: ↓ right VS (trend), B = −009 (.005), p = .06, and left VS, B = −.010 (.005), p = .03.
Inpatient/Incarcerated samples
Geurts et al., 2016	Total n = 34 (34M)	Interview	MID	Reward	Reward Anticipation > No Reward Anticipation	Psychopaths + Controls high on IA vs. Controls low on IA: ↑ VS (T = 3.30, p = .011 small volume; T = 5.31, p = .049 whole brain)	N/A	N/A	PPI-IA related to increased VS activity during reward anticipation, independent of criminality. Psychopaths had increased VS–dmPFC functional connectivity vs. Controls.
	Incarcerated psychopaths (n = 14)	PCL-R	Monetary	Anticipation		Psychopaths vs. Controls high on IA: ns			High PPI-FD controls had greater periaqueductal gray activity during reward anticipation vs. psychopaths.
	Healthy controls (n = 20)	Self-Report PPI: IA and FD scales				Group × Reward expectancy interaction in the periaqueductal gray driven by greater reward reactivity in high FD controls compared with the psychopath group
Gregory et al., 2015	Total n = 50 (50M)	Interview	Probabilistic response reversal	Reward and Loss	Reward > Punished reversal error	APD + P vs. APD-P: ↓ right STG extending to anterior MTG (Z = 3.68, p = .039)	Punished reversal error > Reward	APD + P vs. APD-P: ↑ PCC, precuneus (Z = 3.84, p = .001) and right anterior insula (Z = 3.16, p = .044)	Offenders with APD and psychopathy had increased activation in cingulate, insula and precuneus to loss, and decreased STG activation to rewards. PCL-R scores positively correlated with posterior cingulate reactivity during punished reversal errors
	Violent offenders with APD and psychopathy (n = 12)	SCID-II	Points	Receipt		APD + P vs. Controls: ↓ right STG extending to anterior MTG (Z = 3.76. p = .019)		APD + P vs. Controls: ↑ PCC and precuneus (Z = 3.47, p = .011)
	Violent offenders with APD only (n = 20)	PCL-R				APD-P vs. Controls: ns		APD-P vs. Controls: ns
	Healthy nonoffender controls (n = 18)					APD-P: ↑ PCC and STG		APD-P: ns
						Controls: ↑ PCC and STG		Controls: ↑ inferior parietal lobe
						APD + P: ns		APD + P: ↑ inferior parietal lobe and PCC
Pujara et al., 2014	Prison inmates n = 41: 18 psychopaths and 23 nonps ychopaths (41M)	Interview	Probabilistic slot machine game	Reward and Loss	Reward > Neutral	Between groups: ns	Loss > Neutral	Between groups: ns	Psychopathy severity related to increased VS activity to Reward > Loss, driven mainly by negative correlation to Loss > Neutral
		PCL-R	Monetary	Receipt	Reward > Loss	Within groups:		Within groups:
						Nonpsychopaths: ns		Nonpsychopaths: ns
						Psychopaths: ns		Psychopaths: ↓ VS (r = −.61, p = .007)
						Within groups:
						Nonpsychopaths: ns
						Psychopaths: ↑ left VS (r = .74, p = .0004)
Völlm et al., 2010	Total n = 57 (57M)	Interview	Reward receipt task	Reward	Reward > No reward	APD vs. Controls: increased in right OFC (Z =3.38) and pregenual cortex (Z = 3.31) p < .001 uncorrected	N/A		Offenders with APD had increased right OFC and pregenual cortex activity to rewards compared with controls
	Incarcerated offenders with APD (n = 25)	SCID-II	Monetary	Blocked design		Main effect of the task was not significant in hypothesized reward-related brain regions.
	Healthy Controls (n = 32)

Note. M_ male; ACC _ anterior cingulate cortex; APD _ antisocial personality disorder; dmPFC _ dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; FD _ fearless dominance; IA _ impulsive-antisocial; MID _monetary incentive delay task; MTG _ middle temporal gyrus; OFC _ orbitofrontal cortex; PCC _ posterior cingulate cortex; PCL-R _ Psychopathy Checklist–Revised; PPI _ Psychopathic Personality Inventory; PFC _ prefrontal cortex; SCID-II _ Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition; SRP-SF _ Self-Report of Psychopathy–Short Form; SRP-Affective _ Self-Report of Psychopathy Affective Facet; SRP-Antisocial _ Self-Report of Psychopathy Antisocial Facet; SRP-Lifestyle _ Self-Report of Psychopathy Lifestyle Facet; STG _ superior temporal gyrus; VS _ ventral striatum.