Table 1.
In vitro and in vivo data supporting the effects of ethanol on biomembranes or enveloped viruses
| Reference | Study type | Ethanol | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ly and Longo39 | Model membrane vesicles (membrane fluidity, permeability, interdigitation, thickness, etc.) | Ethanol >3.4 M (20% v:v) | Membranes not considered “stable”; interdigitation; rapid swelling of PC vesicles |
| Ahl et al.40 | Formation of interdigitated PL sheets from SUV | Ethanol above 2 M (11.8% v:v) | Formed larger IFVs; leakage of contents of vesicles |
| Hunt et al.41 | Repeated cycling through transition phase of model membranes | Ethanol 86 mM (0.5% v:v) | Lysis of PC vesicles |
| Komatsu et al.42–44 | Leakage of dye from vesicles made of PC, PE/PC, or PC/cholesterol. | 0.6–2.1 M (3.5%–12.3%, v/v) | Calcein leaks out at low ethanol concentrations. Rapid swelling of vesicles. |
| Dennison et al.45 | In vitro—Herpes, influenza, rotavirus, and adenovirus | 26.9% ethanol (v:v) with essential oils | Enveloped viruses (herpes and influenza) were significantly impacted |
| IADR abstract 2010 | H1N1 Influenza A pandemic strain, in vitro | 21.6% ethanol, 30-s rinse | >99.99% reduction in infectivity |
| Roberts and Lloyd46 | Three enveloped viruses: Sindbis, herpes simplex-1 and vaccinia, in vitro | 20% (v:v) ethanol | Completely inactivated |
| Siddharta et al.47 | Enveloped viruses; in vitro infectivity WHO formulation I in the presence of coronavirus. | 30-s exposure of a dilution containing 34% (v:v) ethanol | Completely prevented subsequent viral replication |
| Oh et al.48 | Mammalian cell membranes: Corneal epithelial cells | 20% ethanol; 30-s incubation | 40% loss of viability; high level of leakage of intracellular contents |
| Sonmez et al.49 | Mammalian cell membranes: Red blood cells | 1M (5.9% v:v) ethanol | Approximately 10% cell lysis |
| Chi and Wu50 and Tyulina et al.51,52 | Mammalian cell membranes: Red blood cells | Moderate concentrations around 3–4M (18%–23.5%). | Potassium leakage and hemolysis |
| Wang et al.53 | Mammalian cell membranes: Intestinal cell line (Caco-2) | Ethanol >5%–10%: long incubation time of 60 min | Loss of viability, leakage of contents, and disruption of tight junctions |
| Meiller et al.54 | In vivo human study | 21.6% ethanol, 30-s rinse | Recoverable virions of herpes simplex types I and II to 0 post rinse; at 30 min all lower than prerinse, 11/20 remained 0 |
| Meiller et al.54 | In vivo human repeat study | 21.6% ethanol, 30-s rinse | 0 recoverable virions in 18/20 post rinse and 12/20 at 30 min; at 60 min all less than baseline |
| Sattar et al. (unpublished data) | Finger pads of adults; Dried inocula; human respiratory coronavirus 229E | Hand gels with 60% and 70% ethanol exposed for 20 s | Viability titer of the virus was reduced by >99.99% in both cases |
Studies cited in our text are summarized above for type, ethanol amount, and outcome. They are listed in order of model membranes, followed by in vitro studies on viruses, studies on mammalian cell membranes, then in vivo studies. Ethanol concentrations were listed also, in some cases, whether v/v or w/v was used was not provided in the study. In all studies, refer to the primary literature for full information on the impact of ethanol on the membrane. PC, Phosphatidylcholine, PE, phosphatidylethanolamine.