Table 3.
Methods used for impact assessment, number of risk management options (RMOs) addressed in SEA, mean risk reduction capacity, expected costs and benefits of RMOs evaluated in SEA of 22 REACH restriction dossiers
| Substance (abbreviation) | Used in branch/product | Method(s) used for assessing impacts | RMO addressed in SEAa | Mean risk reduction capacity (%)** (parameter) |
Mean expected costs (M€/year), (lower/upper bounds**) | Mean expected benefits (M€/year), (lower/upper bounds**); effectiveness estimate | Cost–benefit/cost–effectiveness ratio | Time period of SEA (years) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lead in jewellery articles (Pb in jewellery) | Jewellery coatings | Break-even analysis of mouthing duration of a piece of Pb, for children between 6 months and 3 years until benefits of avoiding Pb in jewellery articles just exceed costs of the restriction (i.e. expected substitution and testing costs), and human health impacts (lost lifetime earnings due to IQ loss, assuming a mean value of 10,000 € reduction of lifetime earnings per IQ point lost) | 1 | n.a.b | 4.6 (2.1–6.3) | Break-even: 1–87 s/child and year (mean 32 s/child and year) | n.a. | 1 |
| Phenylmercury compounds (Phenyl-Hg) | Polyurethane coatings, adhesives, sealants and elastomers | Cost-effectiveness analysis, relating the net present value (NPV) in 2010 of compliance costs and the loss of revenue from exports for the entire phase-out period to total expected emissions avoided | 1 | 69 (avoided emissions) | 9.7 | Total emissions avoided: 14,900 kg | Cost-effectiveness ratio 649 €/kg avoided emissions | 19 (2010–2028) |
| 2 | 100 (avoided emissions) | 14.6 | Total emissions avoided: 18,2 kg | Cost-effectiveness ratio 802 €/kg emissions avoided | ||||
| Mercury in measuring devices (Hg) | Thermometers (incl. hygrometers), sphygmomanometers (i.e. blood pressure meters), barometers, manometers (incl. tensiometers), metering devices for the determination of softening point, pycnometers, strain gauges used with plethysmographs | Cost-effectiveness analysis for the different measuring devices, relating expected cumulative compliance costs for avoiding Hg to the expected cumulative emission reduction (2015–2034) | 1 | n.a.c | 12.3d | Emissions avoided: 60.3 t/20 y | Cost-effectiveness ratio 4100 €/kg emissions avoided | 20 |
| Phthalates (2012) | Softener of PVC and other plastics, in dispersions, paints and varnishes, carpets, tablecloths, curtains, bags, brief-/suitcases, electric and electronic equipment (EEE), water beds, air mattresses, wallpaper, tapestry, footwear, bathing equipment, balls, etc. | Cost-effectiveness analysis relating total expected substitution costs of raw materials in 2015 to total expected avoided lifetime emissions | 1 | 64 (tonnage reduction) | 12.5 (5–20) | Avoided lifetime emissions: 252 t | Cost-effectiveness ratio for different groups of articles: 34.4–366.4 €/kg avoided emissions. | n.a. |
| Chromium VI compounds (CrVI) | Tanning processes | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing compliance costs (tanning and testing costs) and import costs, and health impacts (saved costs due to the prevention of new contact allergy cases, and saved costs for treatment of existing allergy cases). | 1 | 80 (health incidence reduction) | 92.5 (85–100) | 1.8 (1.5 in year 1)—2.0 in year 20) | n.a. | 20 |
| p-dichlorobenzene (DCB) | Lab chemical, carrier for textile dyes, crop protection and paper industry, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, leather and fabrics, cosmetics, toilet blocks, air fresheners, embalming powder, chemicals of grinding wheels, monomer for the production of polyphenylene sulphide | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing expected economic impacts (substitution costs, change of consumer surplus), and avoided health impacts (annualised VoLYLf assuming values of 50,000 € and 120,000 €/year, respectively, and assuming a 20-year assessment period). | 1 | 51 (reduction of exposed population) | 2.8 (2.6–3.1)e | 16.4 (9.6–23.1) | n.a. | 20 |
| 2 | 72 (reduction of exposed population) | 3.5 (2.1–5.3)e | 2.2 (1.3–3.1) | |||||
| 3 | 100 (reduction of exposed population) | 1.0 (1.0–2.2)e | 18.6 (10.9–26.2) | |||||
| Lead and its compounds in consumer articles (Pb cons. art.) | Metal alloys, pigments/dyes, as pure metal and as stabiliser in plastic | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing expected annualised compliance costs (substitution, testing, and redesign & recycling costs) and expected lifetime benefits of children from reduced Pb exposure (avoided lifetime productivity loss per IQ point decrement, assuming a mean value of lifetime earnings per IQ point lost of 8000 €); break-even analysis of mouthing time. | 1 | 69 (exposure reduction) | 34 (12 – 43) | 176 (52 – 552) | n.a. | Lifetimeg |
| 2 | 69 (exposure reduction) | 91 (24–235) | n.a. | |||||
| 3 | 51 (exposure reduction) | 17 (5–20) | n.a. | |||||
| 4 | n.a. | >40 (24–235) | n.a. | |||||
| Nonylphenol varieties incl. ethoxylated nonylphenol (NP/NPE) | Textile and leather auxiliaries, additives in concrete, plastics, food packaging, photographic chemicals, lab chemicals | Assessment of compliance (substitution) costs and benefits (improvement of ecosystem services expressed as reduction of the number of EU countries with risk characterisation ratio of receiving waters > 1) | 1 | 21 (exposure reduction) | 45.9 | n.a. | 6–7 countries in 2021 (compared to 11–12 countries 2010). | 11 (2010–2021) |
| N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) | Solvent and cleaning agent in petrochemical, agricultural, pharmaceutical, electronics and textile industries | Cost assessment (compliance costs, relocation costs turnover affected, lost jobs), health benefit assessment and assessment of reduced number of workers at risk (both confidential and not documented) | 1 | n.a. | 2.5 (1.7–3.3) | n.a. | n.a. | 15 |
| 2 | 86 (exposure reduction) | 3.0 (2.7–3.3) | n.a. | |||||
| 3 | 72 (exposure reduction) | 19.0 (2.7–35.3) | n.a. | |||||
| 4 | 72 (exposure reduction) | n.a. | n.a. | |||||
| Cadmium in artists’ paints (Cd in artists’ paints) | Oil, acrylic, water colours, gouache, pure pigments | Partial cost–benefit analysis, considering consumer costs (financial costs and loss of consumer surplus, administrative costs and costs for discarded products over 50, 100 and 150 years) and health benefits (saved direct, indirect and intangible costs of (i) avoided male and female fractures and (ii) breast cancers, saved monetised QALYs of avoided cancers, assuming loss of 1,65 QALYs per cancer case and a value of 51,000 € per QALY) | 1 | 0.006 (reduced per capita intake CD in food) | 0.3 (0.2–0.5) | 1.3 (0.6–2.0) | n.a. | 150 |
| Chrysotile (CHRY) | Cells for electrolysis, production of chlorine | Assessment of annual costs for baseline A scenario (demand/use in 2015–2025 if the substitute is viable) and a baseline B scenario (substitute is not viable). | 1 | n.a. | 5.8 | n.a. | n.a. | 10 (2015–2025) |
| 2 | n.a. | 0 | n.a. | |||||
| Bisphenol-A (BPA) | Dye developer in point-of-sales tickets, receipts, self-adhesive labels, lottery tickets, fax paper | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing costs (average substitution and compliance costs for different substitution options), and health benefits (NPV of avoided treatment costs for adverse health effects in workers and consumers) | 1 | 70 (avoided env. release) | 22.3 (19.3–25.3) | 4.3 (3.5–5.2) | n.a. | Health impacts: Lifetime with 2019 as reference year; Costs: 2019-2030 |
| Inorganic ammonium salts (NH4) | Cellulose insulation materials | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing costs (European technical approvals, other technical approvals, testing) and benefits (avoided costs of re-insulation and re-housing, avoided cost-of-illness based on direct treatment costs in France) | 1 | 95 (health incidence reduction) | 0.3 (0.2–0.4) | 0.35 (0.3–0.4) | n.a. | 24 (2017–2041) |
| Decabromodiphenyl ether (DecaBDE) | Additive flame retardant in furniture, textiles, in transport, construction and mining sector | Cost-effectiveness analysis relating average substitution costs per year to average expected emission reduction per year | 1 | 100 (emission reduction) | 2.2 | Average emission reduction: 4.7 t/year | Cost-effectiveness ratio: 464 €/kg avoided emissions |
Different timescales for emissions. Production: 2014; Article service life: 10 years; Waste landfills: 30 years |
| Perfluorooctanoic acid, its salts and PFOA-related substances (PFOA) | Pans and other cooking utilities, photographic applications, semiconductor industry, textiles and leather, firefighting foams, in paper, paints, inks | Cost-effectiveness analysis, relating expected substitution costs after 2015 (operating and investment costs) to expected avoided emissions per year | 1 | 45 (production volume reduction) | 17 (1.4 – 121) | Emission reduction PFOA: 5.5 t/year; emission reduction PFOA-related substances: 18.8–55.2 t/year |
Cost-effectiveness ratio PFOA: 0–6550 €/kg avoided emissions. Cost-effectiveness ratio PFOA-related substances: 4–3533 €/kg avoided emissions. |
Distinction between a ‘current’ and ‘post 2015’ period |
| Methanol (MeOH) | Paints, varnishes, windshield washer fluids, antifreezes, adhesives, de-icers and cleaning agents | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing expected substitution costs and expected benefits (value of avoided fatalities for the period 2004–2011 assuming a VSL of 1,000,000 €), based on data from Finland | 1 | 63 (poisoning incidence reduction) | 2.2 (0.4–4.0) | 45 (16.1–101) | n.a.2 |
Health impacts: Life year; Costs: 2004–2011 |
| Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane and decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D4/D5) | Shampoos, shower-gels, make-up removing products | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing annual compliance costs (raw material substitution costs, reformulation costs, product performance reduction costs) and benefits (WTPh for reducing risks to the aquatic environment, assuming a WTP/person of 46 € for D4 and of 40 € for D5); cost-effectiveness analysis, relating annualised compliance costs to the annual expected emission reduction | 1 | 87.5 (emission reduction) | 42 (23–61) | 19,300; annual emission reduction 199.6 kg/year | 115.7–533.4 €/kg | Distinction between a 2- and a 5-year transitional period |
| 2 | n.a. | 25 (7.6–42) | 19,300; annual emission reduction 199.6 kg/year | 28.1–434.5 €/kg | ||||
| Silanetriol and any of its mono-, di- or tri-O-(alkyl) derivatives (TDFA) | Water proof articles (textiles, leather, tiles, ceramic), provides water and oil repellence to surfaces such as stone, glass and enamels | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing annual compliance (reformulation) costs and benefits (saved direct and indirect costs due to avoided health incidences, assuming a mean cost value of 1870 €/day). | 1 | n.a. | 0.01 (0.008–0.012) | 0.3 (0.2–0.5) | n.a. | |
| Phthalates (2017) | Articles including mainly flooring material, coated fabrics and paper, recreational gear & equipment, mattresses, footwear, office supplies and equipment, other articles moulded from or coated with plastic | Cost-effectiveness analysis, relating annual compliance costs (substitution costs, testing costs, recycling costs) and enforcement costs to total amount of phthalates substituted; assessment of expected annual benefits in terms of avoided health damage costs. | 1 | n.a. | 18 (16.9–19.1) | 33 (9.8–42.6); amount of phthalates substituted 131,560 t/year | Cost-effectiveness ratio: 130 €/t of substituted phthalate use | 20 (2020–2039) |
| Diisocyanate | Polyurethanes (PU), PU foams assembly foams (e.g. insulation panels), foundry cores (casting), coating materials (paints, lacquers, varnishes), adhesives and glues, elastomers, sealants, pre-polymers in chemical synthesis, engineering plastics, PU fibres | Partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing average annual costs (present value of training and testing costs over a 20-year period) and benefits (present value of avoided direct, indirect and intangible costs from occupational asthma) | 1 | 60 (incidence rate reduction) | 95 (26 – 165) | 324 (271 – 378) | Benefit–cost ratio 1.65–15 M€/year | 20 |
| 2 | n.a. | 148 (79–218) | 324 (271–378) | Benefit–cost ratio 1.2–4.8 M€/year | ||||
| 3 | n.a. | 18126 | 627 | Benefit–cost ratio > 28 M€/year | ||||
| Lead-polymers or copolymers of vinyl chloride (Pb-PVC) | Window profiles, cable insulation, pipes and flooring in order to allow the PVC to endure longer fabrication (heating) time and protect it against photo-degradation, thereby prolonging the service life | Cost-effectiveness, relating expected compliance costs (substitution costs) and enforcement costs in 2016 to expected emission reduction in 2016; break-even analysis (number of IQ points to be prevented per year, min. amount of Pb ingested by population per year) | 1 | 60 (reduction PB concentr.) | 2.1 (0.9–3.3) | Emissions avoided: 0.35–33.8 t/year | Cost-effectiveness ratio 2484–2499 €/kg (central estimate 308 €/kg); break-even: 209 IQ points/year; 1.24 g/year ingested | Implementation year (2016) |
| Lead in shot (Pb shot) | Gunshot and other ammunition across a range of sporting, military and law enforcement uses | Cost-effectiveness analysis, relating average annual substitution costs (present value of shotgun replacement costs, operational costs over a 20-year period) to avoided Pb emissions per year; partial cost–benefit analysis, assessing annualised social costs (costs for replacement and testing of guns, new cartridges, reduced by potential producer surplus gains and tax revenues) and annualised benefits (aggregate use value of avoided mortality of waterfowl species) | 1 | 20 (decrease of lead shot ingestion by different waterfowl species) | 167 (92–347) | >105; emissions avoided 1432–7684 t/year | Cost-effectiveness ratio 0.3–25 €/kg avoided emissions | 3-year transitional period; replacement period shotguns 50 and 20 years, respectively |
The dossiers of Cd in paints did not contain an SEA. In the dossier on DMFu, only an explanatory SEA is provided
Source Information retrieved from Annex XV Final Background Documents available at ECHA (2019d)
**Values of the scenarios presented in the restriction dossiers. See also Table S1 in the ESM. If lower/upper bounds are missing, values were not provided by the dossier submitter
aNot all RMOs identified by the dossier submitter were addressed in the SEA, see also Table S2 in the electronic supplementary material
bn.a.: not available
cRisk reduction capacity not available for all individual measuring devices
dAll measuring devices
eAssuming a linear demand, upper and lower values reflect different elasticities of demand
fVoLYL: value of life years lost
gNo time period specified in the background document
hWTP: willingness to pay