Table 1.

Barriers to exclusive breastfeeding encountered by Chinese mothers and relevant solutions

Difficulties			Solutions
Maternal barriers	Breast milk quantity and quality	Insufficient breast milk	• Promote frequent sucking • Maintain a balanced diet and eat plenty of soup • Rest well and maintain a good mood • Feed for shorter durations and more times a day
		Excessive production of breast milk	• Pump milk before breastfeeding
		Decreased quality of breast milk as child aged	• Maintain physical health
		Decreased quality of breast milk during illness	• Continue breastfeeding, as antibodies from the mother could be passed to the baby through breastfeeding
	Breast problems	Presence of lumps during initial milk production	• Massage the breast with a hot towel
		Engorgement	• Use a breast pump frequently
		Baby teething	• Communicate with baby and pat him or her gently
		Cracked nipples	• Use an edible ointment • Stimulate the nipples with rough towels before giving birth
		Blocked breast ducts	• Continue breastfeeding • Apply heat and cold to the breast
		Breast inflammation	• Massage and clean the breast
	Concerns about breast shape	Breast sagging	• Wear a bra that prevents sagging
		Breast asymmetry	• Breastfeed from both breasts
	Difficulties with lactation after returning to work	Inability to take care of the baby	• Pump milk in advance • Put the baby in a crèche • Adjust working hours
		Decreased breast milk production	• Increase workload gradually rather than having full load at the beginning
	Inability to balance lactation and other daily activities	Inability to balance lactation and work	• Manage time reasonably • Seek family support
		Inconsistent sleep schedule between mother and infant	• Adjust the baby’s schedule • Adapt to the baby’s schedule • Use a breast pump • Seek family support
		Inability to balance lactation and childcare	• Seek family support
	Other problems	Dietary and behaviour restrictions	• To be determined
		Consumption of medication	• Suspend breastfeeding while taking medication • Choose medication that can be taken during lactation • Do not take medication
		Maternal depression	• Self-regulation and self-control
Infant barriers	Breast milk jaundice		• Continue breastfeeding, increase the frequency of breastfeeding • Promote infant secretion • Increase infant sun exposure
	Severe diarrhoea		• Consume a maternal diet low in fat and sugar
	Inability to latch		• Rub around the baby’s lips
Cultural barriers and social adjustment	Language barrier		• Employ Chinese health care professionals
	Inability to consume a Chinese postpartum diet		• N/A
	Odd looks or negative comments from the public		• Ignore negative attitudes or behaviour • Use a cloth to cover the breast
	Lack of breastfeeding facilities in public		• Pump milk before going out • Reduce the frequency of going out, avoid going out, or choose places near home • Choose places that have breastfeeding facilities • Use hidden places to breastfeed (e.g., toilets, cars)