Table 2. Intervention characteristics identified in scoping review of articles January 1, 1990 to June 13, 2017.
| Author, (year), Country study was conducted | Intervention | Description/ Content | Setting -Delivery Format |
Frequency/ Duration | Facilitators | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pain Interventions | ||||||
| Norrbrink Budh et al., (2006), Sweden44 | Pain Management Program | A program consisting of educational sessions, behavior therapy, light exercise, relaxation techniques, stretching and body awareness training. | Not reported -In person, group |
2/week for 10 weeks | Healthcare professional | Improved mood and quality of sleep, decreased demand for care, no reduction in pain intensities. |
| Norrbrink and Lundeberg, (2011), Sweden47 | Medical acupuncture and massage therapy | Acupuncture (a) points were chosen individually and needles were inserted in areas with preserved sensation. Classical massage therapy (b) was carried out in areas with pain and preserved sensation. | Not reported -In person, individual |
2/week for 6 weeks | Not reported | a) Improved energy, bladder/bowel, sleep, function, decreased allodynia, spasticity, medication; b) Less stiffness, spasticity, allodynia, painful attacks, medication, improved function, sleep, relaxation, circulation |
| Curtis et al., (2015), Canada49 | Yoga | A yoga program focusing on breath awareness, nonjudgmental attention to present experience, mindful movement, and a supportive environment. | Rehabilitation Center -In person, group |
1/week for 8 weeks | Yoga Instructor | Positive experiences along emotional, mental, and physical dimensions. |
| Nawoczenski et al., (2006), United States50 | Exercise Program | A home exercise program consisting of stretching and strengthening exercises with elastic band resistance. | Home -In person, individual |
1/day for 8 weeks | Self | Reduced pain and improved function and satisfaction. |
| Perry et al., (2010), Australia51 | Pain Management Program | PMP consisted of education about pain mechanisms and training in self-management skills. | Pain Management Center -In person |
10 sessions for total of 45 hours | Clinical psychologist, PT, nurses, doctors | Improved SF-12 MCS and Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI) Life Interference scores. |
| Jensen et al., (2009), United States60 | Self-Hypnosis | The intervention consisted of hypnotic analgesia and self-hypnosis training. | Home -In person and technology (asynchronous) |
Daily to weekly for 10 sessions | Clinician | Decreased average daily pain |
| Curtis et al., (2017), Canada61 | Yoga | Yoga classes included breathing practices, physical postures, yoga philosophy, mindfulness, and meditation/relaxation techniques. | Rehabilitation Hospital -In person, group |
2/week for 6 weeks | Certified Iyengar yoga teachers | Increased self-compassion, decreased symptoms of depression, no improvements in pain intensity, interference, or catastrophizing. |
| Burns et al., (2013), Canada63 | Interdisciplinary Pain Program | The sessions included CBT, patient education, self-management strategies, group discussions and activities, and either group exercise or guided relaxation. | Rehabilitation Hospital -In person, group |
Biweekly for 10 weeks | PT, OT, social worker | Increased incorporation and maintenance of coping strategies, less pain interference and a greater sense of control. |
| Heutink et al., (2014), Netherlands67 | Multidisciplinary Program | The program comprises educational, cognitive, and behavioral elements targeted at coping with CNSCIP. | Rehabilitation Center -In person, group |
1/week for 10 weeks | PT, nurse, psychologist | Favorable long-term outcomes on pain intensity, pain-related disability, anxiety and activity participation. |
| Heutink et al., (2012), Netherlands79 | Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | The intervention consisted of educational, cognitive, and behavioral elements designed for people with CNSCIP. | Rehabilitation Center -In person, group |
1/week for 10 weeks | psychologist, PT, nurse practitioner, peer | Decreased pain intensity and anxiety, increased participation in activities. |
| Heutink et al., (2013), Netherlands85 | Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | The CBT program comprises educational, cognitive, and behavioral elements to cope with SCI. | Rehabilitation Center -In person, group |
1/week for 10 weeks | Psychiatrist, trainer | Improved pain coping strategies and pain cognitions. |
| Depression Interventions | ||||||
| Rodgers et al., (2007), United States48 | Multiple Family Group Treatment | A psychoeducational management intervention designed to assist families and patients with their coping and illness management skills. | Rehabilitation center -In person, group |
2/month for 12–18 months | Clinicians, social worker, OT, PT, speech pathologists, RN | Improved happiness with life, satisfaction, psychosocial well-being, decreased depressive symptoms and anger. |
| Stuntzner, S. M., (2008), United States52 | Coping Effectively with SCI | A program consisting of reading specific chapters and answering questions to reflect on experiences and feelings. | Home -Technology (asynchronous) |
∼1/week for 8 weeks | Researcher | Decreased depression |
| Dorstyn et al., (2012), Australia59 | Telecounseling Program | Group-based or individual counseling delivered via telephone, telecounseling. | Home -Technology (synchronous) |
Biweekly for 12 weeks | Psychologist | Improved mood and the use of SCI-specific coping skills. |
| Guest et al., (1997), United States62 | Electrical Stimulation Walking Program | The system consists of a microprocessor-controlled stimulator and a modified walking frame with user controlled, finger-operated switches that activate stepping. | Research Laboratory -In person |
32 sessions | Not reported | Statistically significant changes in scores on the Physical Self subscale of the TSCS and the Beck Depression Inventory. |
| Zsoldos et al., (2014), Hungary64 | Animal Assisted Intervention | An intervention that intentionally involves animals in the therapeutic process. | Hospital -In person, group |
2/week for 5 weeks | First author, psychologist, therapeutic dog guides, conservator | Positive changes affecting emotional state, improved socialization and group cohesion. |
| Dorstyn et al., (2010), Australia73 | Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | CBT incorporated confidence building, education surrounding the emotional impact of SCI, stress and symptom relief and coping skills. | Rehabilitation Center -In person |
Biweekly for average of 11 sessions | Psychologist | Improved depression scores which then significantly declined post-intervention. |
| Phillips et al., (2001), United States78 | Telehealth – Telephone Counseling | Educational initiatives to promote rehabilitation following discharge after initial spinal cord injury. | Home -Technology, synchronous |
1/week for 5 weeks, 1/2 weeks for 4 weeks | Nurse | Depressive symptoms declined for all three groups. |
| Pain and Depression Interventions | ||||||
| Norrbrink, (2009), Sweden80 | Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) | Patients self delivered the treatment involving a stimulator and four self-adhesive electrodes. | Home -In person, individual |
3/day for 3 weeks | Self | Low frequency and high frequency TENS had no statistically significant effect on any parameters. |
| Martin Ginis et al., (2003), Canada84 | Exercise Program | Exercise training sessions included stretching, aerobic arm ergometry and resistance exercise. | Rehabilitation Center -In person, group |
24 sessions (ideal: 2/week for 12 weeks) | PT and kinesiology students | Reduced stress, pain, and depression, better physical self-concept and quality of life. |
PT, physical therapist; OT, occupational therapist; RN, registered nurse; CBT, cognitive behavioral therapy; NP, neuropathic pain; CNSCIP, chronic neuropathic spinal cord injury pain.