Table 1.
Sample characteristics at Year 1 (first annual evaluation).
| Characteristic | CI | NH | t |
|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics and hearing history, Year 1 | |||
| Age (years) | 4.2 (1.0) | 4.0 (0.9) | 0.63 |
| Age at implantation (months) | 19.6 (7.6) | NA | NA |
| Duration of CI use (years) | 2.5 (1.1) | NA | NA |
| Preimplant residual hearing a | 98.3 (13.9) [36] | NA | NA |
| Income level b | 7.0 (3.0) [37] | 7.6 (2.0) | 0.99 |
| Income categories (low–medium–high) c | 17/5/15 | 12/17/11 | |
| Sex (female/male) | 20/21 | 19/21 | |
| Race (White/Black) d | 38/7 | 36/5 | |
| Neurocognitive and language measures, Year 1 | |||
| DAS-II Picture Similarities T-score e | 53.3 (9.1) [39] | 60.4 (12.4) | 2.90** |
| Leiter-R Attention Sustained scaled score | 9.6 (2.8) [39] | 12.1 (2.3) [39] | 4.36*** |
| Leiter-R Forward Memory scaled score | 10.5 (3.3) [30] | 12.1 (2.5) [36] | 2.30* |
| WISC-III Digit Span Forward raw score | 3.6 (1.6) [26] | 4.0 (1.8) | 0.97 |
| PPVT-4 standard score | 84.3 (20.7) [40] | 118.5 (10.3) | 9.37*** |
| PLS-4 Total standard score | 80.9 (23.9) [38] | 119.2 (12.5) | 8.92*** |
| Executive functioning behavior checklist measures, Year 1 | |||
| BRIEF Inhibit T-Score | 58.2 (14.6) [39] | 49.8 (9.3) [39] | 3.06** |
| BRIEF Shift T-Score | 50.3 (9.0) [39] | 48.5 (8.8) [39] | 0.90 |
| BRIEF Working Memory T-Score | 59.1 (13.7) [39] | 51.8 (12.0) [39] | 2.50* |
Note. N = 41 for CI sample and 40 for NH sample, unless otherwise indicated by N in brackets. Groups did not differ on sex (Fisher's exact test, p = 1.0) or race (Fisher's exact test, p = .77) but did differ on income categories, χ2(2) = 7.9, p = .02. t tests compare CI and NH samples (df = 79 for the full sample). Underlined values are significantly different from the test normative mean score at p < .05. CI = cochlear implant; NH = normal hearing; NA = not applicable; DAS-II = Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition; Leiter-R = Leiter International Performance Scale–Revised; WISC-III = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition; PPVT-4 = Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Fourth Edition; PLS-4 = Preschool Language Scale–Fourth Edition; BRIEF = Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function.
Preimplant unaided pure-tone average for 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz in dB HL.
Income is on a 1 (under $5,500) to 10 ($95,000 and over) scale (Kronenberger, Pisoni, Henning, & Colson, 2013).
Income categories are low (under $50,000), medium ($50,000–$94,999), and high ($95,000+).
Numbers add to more than study N because some participants reported more than one race.
A measure of nonverbal ability.
p < .05.
p < .01.
p < .001.