Table 6.
Models predicting language development.
| Model | PPVT-4 standard score |
PLS-4 Total standard score |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimate | p | Estimate | p | |
| Model 1 | ||||
| Hearing group | −31.74 (−39.91, −23.57) | .001 | −22.04 (−29.28, −14.81) | .001 |
| Age | 1.32 (−0.05, 2.69) | .06 | −0.04 (−1.99, 1.91) | .97 |
| Sex | −0.19 (−8.11, 7.73) | .96 | 1.18 (−5.70, 8.07) | .73 |
| Income $50–$95K a | 6.54 (−2.22, 15.29) | .14 | 5.60 (−3.01, 14.21) | .20 |
| Income $95K+ a | 15.14 (6.43, 23.85) | .001 | 9.84 (1.93, 17.75) | .02 |
| Nonverbal ability | 0.17 (0.02, 0.32) | .03 | 0.19 (−0.01, 0.39) | .06 |
| Model 2 | ||||
| Hearing group | −31.65 (−39.65, −23.65) | .001 | −17.72 (−23.76, −11.68) | .001 |
| Age | 1.53 (0.18, 2.88) | .03 | −3.25 (−5.81, −0.69) | .02 |
| Sex | −0.27 (−8.04, 7.50) | .94 | 1.18 (−4.03, 6.39) | .65 |
| Income $50–$95K a | 6.05 (−2.58, 14.68) | .17 | −0.02 (−6.83, 6.78) | .99 |
| Income $95K+ a | 13.80 (5.17, 22.43) | .002 | 5.78 (−0.39, 11.96) | .07 |
| Nonverbal ability | 0.15 (0.00, 0.30) | .05 | 0.17 (−0.03, 0.37) | .09 |
| BRIEF Shift (NH) | 0.27 (−0.08, 0.61) | .13 | — | — |
| BRIEF Shift (CI) | −0.30 (−0.55, −0.06) | .02 | — | — |
| Leiter-R Forward Memory | — | — | 1.13 (0.24, 2.01) | .02 |
| Digit Span Forward (NH) | — | — | 1.19 (−1.03, 3.41) | .29 |
| Digit Span Forward (CI) | — | — | 5.27 (3.06, 7.48) | .001 |
Note. Hearing group coded as CI (cochlear implant) = 1 and NH (normal hearing) = 0. Sex coded as male = 0 and female = 1. Estimates are unstandardized regression coefficients. Values in parentheses are 95% confidence interval. Values in bold are p < .05. PPVT-4 = Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Fourth Edition; PLS-4 = Preschool Language Scale–Fourth Edition; Nonverbal ability = Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition, Picture Similarities subtest T-score; BRIEF = Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function; Leiter-R = Leiter International Performance Scale–Revised.
a
Compared to the reference group of $0–$50K.