Table 3.

Possible side effects and solutions in ASO therapy.

Side effects	Cause	Solutions
Off-target	Organ non-specific	Organ specific delivery method
		Dosage test to find optimal concentration
	Non-specific binding	Improve bioinformatics analysis
	ASO with short sequence	Increase the length to 13 to 15-mer
Immunostimulatory	Chemical modification	Avoid the known modifications that cause immunostimulation
Organ toxicity	Toxic motif (TCC/TGC)	Avoid toxic motif when designing ASO

Current treatments for CRS are mainly small molecule drugs. ASOs that specifically inhibit miR-21 expression could be promising drugs for CRS through attenuating cardiac and renal fibrosis. Potential off-target, inflammatory response, and hepatic/renal toxicity of ASOs are the main challenges in an ASO-based therapy and need to be monitored carefully.