Fig. 1.

Virulence agents of H. pylori. IL: Interleukin; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappaB; NIK: NF-κB-inducing kinase; VacA: Vacuolating cytotoxin A; CagA: Cytotoxin-associated gene antigen; PAK1: p21-activated kinase; IKKα/β: IκB kinase α/β; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase; MEK1/2: MAPK/ERK kinase 1/2; INF-γ: Interferon-γ; NOD1: Nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain protein 1; ICAM-1: Intercellular adhesion molecule-1; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase, COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; MKK4: MAPK kinase 4; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α.