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. 2020 May 27;20:778. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-08703-8

Table 2.

Association between geographical characteristics and individual-based loneliness (multilevel logistic regression)

Model A Model B Model C
OR (95%CI), p-value OR (95%CI), p-value OR (95%CI), p-value
Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) (ref = 1st quintile –least deprived) 2nd quintile 1.44 (1.13–1.85), 0.004 1.26 (0.97–1.64), 0.087 1.17 (0.88–1.56), 0.281
3rd quintile 1.36 (1.05–1.78), 0.021 1.28 (0.97–1.70), 0.086 1.30 (0.97–1.76), 0.083
4th quintile 1.54 (1.17–2.04), 0.002 1.19 (0.88–1.60), 0.250 1.09 (0.78–1.50), 0.607
5th quintile-most deprived 2.0 (1.48–2.71), < 0.001 1.38 (0.99–1.92), 0.056 1.13 (0.78–1.61), 0.520
p-value for trend < 0.001 0.096 0.532
Urban/rural character (ref = Urban) Town and fringe 0.99 (0.76–1.28), 0.923 1.10 (0.83–1.45), 0.503 1.13 (0.84–1.51), 0.433
Village 0.84 (0.63–1.12), 0.240 0.97 (0.71–1.32), 0.836 1.04 (0.74–1.44), 0.828
Hamlet and isolated dwellings 0.91 (0.59–1.42), 0.688 1.18 (0.74–1.88), 0.472 1.44 (0.88–2.34), 0.147
p-value for trend 0.300 0.626 0.220
Geographical regions (ref = London) North East 1.23 (0.74–2.06), 0.422 1.77 (0.94–3.30), 0.078 1.65 (0.85–3.19), 0.138
North West 1.43 (0.92–2.23), 0.111 1.67 (0.94–2.95), 0.081 1.54 (0.86–2.79), 0.149
Yorkshire and The Humber 1.68 (1.09–2.61), 0.019 2.02 (0.94–2.95), 0.013 1.97 (1.10–3.51), 0.21
East Midlands 1.53 (0.98–2.39), 0.019 1.83 (1.03–3.25), 0.038 1.73 (0.95–3.13), 0.068
West Midlands 1.60 (1.02–2.50), 0.038 2.19 (1.24–3.86), 0.007 2.12 (1.19–3.80), 0.011
East of England 1.27 (0.83–1.95), 0.271 1.57 (0.90–2.74), 0.112 1.53 (0.87–2.72), 0.110
South East 1.27 (0.83–1.98), 0.271 1.52 (0.89–2.62), 0.123 1.48 (0.85–2.56), 0.211
South West 1.74 (1.12–2.70), 0.012 2.35 (1.35–2.94.083), 0.002 2.51 (1.43–4.43), 0.001

Model A = geographical characteristics+age + gender

Model B = Model A+ social network + individual-based loneliness from baseline wave

Model C = Model B + health characteristics