Table 3.

Association between geographical characteristics and area-based loneliness (multilevel logistic regression)

		Model A	Model B	Model C
		OR (95%CI), p-value	OR (95%CI), p-value	OR (95%CI), p-value
Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) (ref = 1st quintile-least deprived)	2nd quintile	1.34 (1.08–1.67), 0.008	1.14 (0.88–1.47), 0.321	1.11 (0.86–1.44), 0.406
	3rd quintile	1.31 (1.03–1.65), 0.025	1.27 (0.97–1.66), 0.087	1.27 (0.97–1.67), 0.081
	4th quintile	1.61 (1.26–2.06), < 0.001	1.27 (0.95–1.1770), 0.106	1.26 (0.94–1.69), 0.123
	5th quintile-most deprived	1.95 (1.49–2.57), < 0.001	1.57 (1.12–2.20), 0.008	1.53 (1.09–2.14), 0.015
	p-value for trend	< 0.001	0.006	0.009
Urban/rural character (ref = Urban)	Town and fringe	0.79 (0.62–1.01), 0.065	0.78 (0.59–1.04), 0.096	0.77 (0.57–1.03), 0.085
	Village	0.98 (0.77–1.25), 0.880	1.20 (0.90–1.60), 0.195	1.26 (0.95–1.67), 0.105
	Hamlet and isolated dwellings	0.92 (0.63–1.35), 0.673	0.96 (0.61–1.50), 0.874	1.00 (0.63–1.60), 0.984
	p-value for trend	0.427	0.790	0.506
Geographical regions (ref = London)	North East	0.74 (0.48–1.12), 0.157	0.76 (0.44–1.25), 0.291	0.76 (0.45–1.26), 0.291
	North West	0.73 (0.51–1.06), 0.094	0.66 (0.42–1.02), 0.062	0.66 (0.42–1.02), 0.062
	Yorkshire and The Humber	0.98 (0.69–1.40), 0.908	0.88 (0.58–1.36), 0.576	0.89 (0.60–1.36), 0.576
	East Midlands	0.78 (0.54–1.13), 0.196	0.70 (0.45–1.09), 0.116	0.70 (0.45–1.09), 0.116
	West Midlands	0.82 (0.54–1.13), 0.287	0.71 (0.45–1.10), 0.127	0.71 (0.52–1.13), 0.190
	East of England	1.02 (0.73–1.42), 0.881	0.97 (0.64–1.46), 0.878	1.09 (0.45–1.10), 0.127
	South East	0.96 (0.68–1.29), 0.761	0.91 (0.61–1.33), 0.619	0.97 (0.63–1.46), 0.879
	South West	0.95 (0.67–1.34), 0.761	0.83 (0.54–1.27), 0.398	0.91 (0.61–1.33), 0.861

Model A = geographical characteristics+age + gender

Model B = Model A+ social network + individual-based loneliness from baseline wave

Model C = Model B + health characteristics