Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics and bivariate associations between depression status and covariates adjusted for clustering by community
| Variable | Total N = 374 | None/mild depression N = 300 | Moderate/moderately severe depression N = 74 | Risk ratio (95% CI) | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean Hope Score (SD) (min, max) | 38.1 (3.8) (27, 48) | 38.5 (3.8) (30, 48) | 36.8 (3.5) (27, 46) | 0.91 (0.86, 0.96) | 0.002 |
| Mean age (SD) (min, max) | 27.0 (6.8) (16, 50) | 27.0 (6.9) (16, 50) | 26.8 (6.4) (17, 40) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.02) | 0.628 |
| Age | 0.509 | ||||
| ≤ 24 | 40.4% | 41.0% | 37.8% | REF | |
| 25–34 | 41.2% | 39.7% | 47.3% | 1.15 (0.82, 1.63) | |
| ≥ 35 | 18.4% | 19.3% | 14.9% | 0.86 (0.49, 1.50) | |
| Mean # of pregnancies (SD) (min, max) | 3.3 (1.9) (1, 9) | 3.4(2.0) (1, 9) | 3.2 (1.8) (1, 7) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) | 0.460 |
| # of pregnancies | 0.758 | ||||
| One pregnancy | 21.9% | 21.0% | 25.7% | REF | |
| 2–3 pregnancies | 34.0% | 34.7% | 31.1% | 0.82 (0.47, 1.45) | |
| 4 or more pregnancies | 44.1% | 44.3% | 43.2% | 0.85 (0.51, 1.42) | |
| Ever attended formal school | 51.3% | 50.7% | 54.1% | 1.03 (0.74, 1.44) | 0.860 |
| Hunger | < 0.001 | ||||
| Little to none | 73.0% | 78.0% | 52.7% | REF | |
| Moderate | 25.1% | 20.7% | 43.3% | 2.45 (1.68, 3.58) | |
| Severe | 1.9% | 1.3% | 4.1% | 2.76 (1.10, 6.90) | |
| Assets in household per Ghana Equity Tool: | |||||
| Color TVa | 45.7% | 46.3% | 43.2% | -- | -- |
| Agricultural land | 97.3% | 98.0% | 94.6% | -- | -- |
| Refrigerator | 8.6% | 9.0% | 6.8% | -- | -- |
| Video deck/DVDa | 36.4% | 36.3% | 36.5% | -- | -- |
| Bank accounta | 23.9% | 25.4% | 17.6% | -- | -- |
| Electricitya | 63.6% | 62.7% | 67.6% | -- | -- |
| Clocka | 84.8% | 84.0% | 87.8% | -- | -- |
| Cupboard | 3.5% | 4.0% | 1.4% | -- | -- |
| Fuel (wood) | 96.2% | 96.0% | 97.3% | -- | -- |
| Toilet (no facility/bush) a | 52.1% | 49.7% | 62.2% | -- | -- |
| Non-sachet drinking water | 100% | 100% | 100% | -- | -- |
| Floors (cement) a | 87.2% | 86.0% | 91.9% | -- | -- |
| Exterior walls (cement) a | 15.0% | 16.0% | 10.8% | -- | -- |
| Mobile money (non-Equity Tool item) a | 69.0% | 70.5% | 63.0% | -- | -- |
| Satellite dish (non-Equity Tool item) a | 22.1% | 22.1% | 21.9% | -- | -- |
| SES (asset quintile) | 0.969 | ||||
| Lowest quintile | 19.7% | 19.9% | 19.2% | REF | |
| Second quintile | 19.7% | 19.5% | 20.6% | 1.01 (0.62, 1.64) | |
| Middle quintile | 20.5% | 20.5% | 20.6% | 1.00 (0.59, 1.70) | |
| Fourth quintile | 18.6% | 18.2% | 20.6% | 0.95 (0.62, 1.46) | |
| Highest quintile | 21.4% | 21.9% | 19.2% | 0.77 (0.35, 1.66) | |
| Living with partner | 89.8% | 88.7% | 94.6% | 2.34 (0.86, 6.41) | 0.097 |
| Currently in a polygynous relationshipb | 39.7% | 38.1% | 46.5% | 1.32 (0.91, 1.92) | 0.147 |
| Physical health | 0.065 | ||||
| Fair/poor | 15.5% | 13.3% | 24.3% | REF | |
| Good | 36.1% | 36.3% | 35.1% | 0.63 (0.39, 1.03) | |
| Very good/excellent | 48.4% | 50.3% | 40.5% | 0.59 (0.38, 0.94) | |
| Controlling behaviors (12 months)c | 79.1% | 77.7% | 84.5% | 1.47 (0.76, 2.85) | 0.251 |
| Emotional IPV (12 months)d | 44.6% | 39.9% | 63.4% | 1.96 (1.35, 2.87) | < 0.001 |
| Physical and/or sexual IPV (12 months)e | 38.5% | 33.8% | 57.7% | 1.93 (1.25, 2.98) | 0.003 |
| Reported thoughts of self-harm or suicide in past 2 weeks (item in PHQ) | 14.2% | 9.7% | 32.4% | 2.81 (1.78, 4.46) | < 0.001 |
| Sufficient social support | |||||
| Husbandf | 45.8% | 48.2% | 36.5% | 0.78 (0.54, 1.11) | 0.177 |
| Male relatives | 22.7% | 24.7% | 14.9% | 0.61 (0.32, 1.16) | 0.131 |
| Female relatives | 36.9% | 40.7% | 21.6% | 0.52 (0.30, 0.90) | 0.012 |
| Female friends | 17.4% | 18.7% | 12.2% | 0.70 (0.36, 1.35) | 0.291 |
aIncluded in the asset index
bOut of n = 360 (n = 298 none to mild; n = 73 moderate to moderately severe) who reported being married
cn = 354 (total); n = 283 (none to mild); n = 71 (moderate to moderately severe)
dn = 359 (total); n = 288 (none to mild); n = 71 (moderate to moderately severe)
en = 358 (total); n = 287 (none to mild); n = 71 (moderate to moderately severe)
fn = 371 (total); n = 291 (none to mild); n = 74 (moderate to moderately severe)