Table 2.
Prevalence and Stressfulness of COVID-19-Related Stressors
| N endorsed (%) | Group differences in stressor prevalence | Mean stress appraisal (SD) | Group differences in stress appraisal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infection-related | ||||
| 1. Risk of becoming infected | 576 (56.8%) | e1 (r = − .09) | 3.06 (1.03) | a1 (d = − 0.26); b (d = 0.20); e1 (r = − .09) |
| 2. Self-monitoring of symptoms | 440 (43.4%) | c1 (h = 0.36); e1 (r = − .07) | 2.43 (1.13) | b (d = 0.36); d1 (r = − .18); e1 (r = − .18); f (d = 0.28) |
| 3. Risk of loved ones becoming infected | 622 (61.3%) | a1 (h = − 0.14) | 3.65 (1.01) | a1 (d = − 0.23); b (d = 0.21); e1 (r = − .21) |
| 4. Risk of unintentionally infecting other people | 246 (24.3%) | d1 (r = − .12); e1 (r = − .07) | 3.26 (1.08) | e1 (r = − .16) |
| 5. Read or heard others talk about the severity and contagiousness of COVID-19 | 980 (96.6%) | d2 (r = .07) | 3.07 (1.08) | a1 (d = − 0.23); d1 (r = − .09); e1 (r = − .15) |
| 6. Stigma, shame, discrimination, or social exile related to quarantine or working in a high-risk area (e.g., others shunning you because you work in healthcare)? | 66 (6.5%) | b (h = 0.23); d1 (r = − .12) | 3.53 (0.96) | b (d = 0.53) |
| 7. Stigma, shame, or discrimination related to being in a certain age group (e.g., negative statements about Millennials or Generation Z) | 158 (15.6%) | c1 (h = 0.20); d1 (r = − .22); e1 (r = − .10) | 2.57 (1.13) | b (d = 0.40) |
| 8. Uncertainty about how long quarantine and/or social distancing requirements will last? | 896 (88.3%) | a1 (h = − 0.13) | 3.26 (1.08) | a1 (d = − 0.25); d1 (r = − .20); e1 (r = − .17) |
| Activity-related | ||||
| 9. Changes to daily personal care routines (e.g., cooking, cleaning, exercise/relaxation, hobbies) | 811 (80.1%) | d1 (r = − .08) | 2.76 (1.12) | a1 (d = − 0.15); b (d = 0.17); d1 (r = − .20); e1 (r = − .22) |
| 10. Changes to daily work routines (e.g., unable to earn money, attend full- or part-time work schedule) | 608 (60.3%) | d1 (r = − .18); e1 (r = − .15) | 3.46 (1.16) | a1 (d = − 0.32); d1 (r = − .17); e1 (r = − .39) |
| 11. Changes to daily education routines (e.g., online instruction) | 233 (23.0%) | a1 (h = − 0.25); b (h = 0.43); d1 (r = − .20) | 3.16 (1.13) | d1 (r = − .13) |
| 12. Changes to social routines (e.g., spending free time with friends/loved ones) | 849 (83.7%) | - | 2.91 (1.12) | a1 (d = − 0.22); d1 (r = − .10); e1 (r = − .13) |
| 13. Changed responsibilities to care for dependents (e.g., childcare, eldercare) | 246 (24.3%) | b (h = 1.02); c2 (h = − 0.26) | 2.10 (1.17) | d1 (r = − .23); e1 (r = − .18) |
| 14. Cancelation of planned or scheduled celebrations, entertainment, vacations, or trips (e.g., graduations, birthdays, concerts) | 696 (68.7%) | a1 (h = − 0.27); b (h = 0.25); d1 (r = − .07) | 2.95 (1.15) | d1 (r = − .11) |
| 15. Cancelation of meaningful personal or religious rituals (e.g., funerals, religious services) | 266 (26.3%) | b (h = 0.32); c2 (h = − 0.42); d2 (r = .08); f (h = 0.16) | 2.94 (1.19) | a1 (d = − 0.34); e1 (r = − .18) |
| 16. Inability to travel (e.g., cancelation of vacations, weekend trips) | 565 (55.8%) | e2 (r = .07) | 2.90 (1.12) | d1 (r = − .12) |
| 17. Increased contact with close others or loved ones (e.g., increased conflict, co-worrying) | 438 (43.3%) | b (h = 0.20); c1 (h = 0.24) | 2.60 (1.17) | a1 (d = − 0.28); c1 (d = 0.27); d1 (r = − .19); e1 (r = − .22) |
| 18. Pressure to “make the most of” COVID-19 or “find a silver lining” while quarantining (e.g., social media fitness challenges, encouragement to increase productivity) | 502 (49.7%) | a1 ( h = − 0.24); b (h = 0.18); c1 (h = 0.20); d1 (r = − .11) | 2.41 (1.20) | a1 (d = − 0.28); d1 (r = − .19); e1 (r = − .18) |
| Financial/resource-related | ||||
| 19. Loss of current job security or income (e.g., inability to earn money)? | 339 (33.6%) | a1 (h = − 0.11); c1 (h = 0.20); d1 (r = − .11); e1 (r = − .37) | 4.09 (0.96) | d1 (r = − .16); e1 (r = − .32) |
| 20. Loss of current job training opportunities or education benchmarks (e.g., certification, apprenticeship, internship or degree completion) | 121 (12.0%) | d1 (r = − .22); e1 (r = − .13) | 3.52 (1.18) | a1 (d = − 0.42); e1 (r = − .33) |
| 21. Potential changes to the national or global economy (e.g., future job prospects, loss of investments) | 643 (63.6%) | - | 3.45 (1.05) | a1 (d = − 0.20); d1 (r = − .12); e1 (r = − .19) |
| 22. Difficulty accessing important resources for daily life (e.g., healthcare, food, clothes, water, housing, medical supplies or prescriptions) | 501 (49.5%) | a1 (h = − 0.21); e1 (r = − .23) | 3.36 (1.04) | a1 (d = − 0.28); d1 (r = − .18); e1 (r = − .20) |
| 23. Inadequate access to reliable information about COVID-19 (including your personal risk of illness) | 176 (17.4%) | d1 (r = − .10); e1 (r = − .15) | 3.50 (1.09) | e1 (r = − .23) |
a1, reported more by women vs. men; a2, reported more by men vs. women; b, reported more by caregivers vs. non-caregivers; c1, reported more by non-heterosexual participants; c2, reported more by heterosexual participants; d1, negatively associated with older age; d2, positively associated with older age; e1, negatively associated with having needs met; e2, positively associated with having needs met; f, reported more often by non-White participants (all two-tailed p’s < .05). Two-tailed independent samples t tests were used for categorical group comparisons; bivariate correlations were used for continuous predictors (age and financial needs met) to retain maximal variance. Average stress appraisals apply only for participants who endorsed experiencing each item; participants who did not endorse a given item did not report on stress appraisals. Standardized effect sizes differ by statistical test used (h = Cohen’s h (0.20 = small, 0.50 = medium, 0.80 = large); d = Cohen’s d (0.20 = small, 0.50 = medium, 0.80 = large); r = bivariate correlation (0.1 = small, 0.3 = medium, 0.5 = large))