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. 2020 May 29;10:8793. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-65626-5

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Effect of foot stiffness on ankle-foot gear ratio. (A) Gear ratio is the ratio of the lever arm of ground reaction force (R) and the lever arm of the ankle plantarflexor (calf) muscle (r) about the ankle joint center. (B) Lengthening the lever arm of ground reaction force (R’), by adding longitudinal foot stiffness, increases gear ratio and requires a greater force from the plantarflexor muscles to maintain a moment balance. Altering the gear ratio has been shown to shift force-velocity operating behavior of the plantarflexor muscles.