Table 2.

Types of cell death

Type	Immune effectors	Morphological features	Molecular features	Characteristics
Complement-induced necrosis	Complement	Cell swelling, plasma membrane rupture	Cell membrane pores	Inflammatory
Killer cell-induced programmed cell death	Perforin/granzymes	Cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation	Caspase activation (granzyme B), mitochondrial ROS, loss of mi to Δψ, proteolytic cascade, global mRNA decay, MOMP, cytochrome C release, genomic DNA fragmentation	Noninflammatory
Apoptosis	Death receptors/effector caspases, granzyme B	Cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation	Caspase activation, mitochondrial ROS, loss of mito Δψ, proteolytic cascade, global mRNA decay, MOMP, cytochrome C release, genomic DNA fragmentation	Noninflammatory
Microptosis	Perforin/granulysin/granzymes	Parasites undergo cell death that morphologically resembles mammalian cell apoptosis	Generation of superoxide anion, disruption of antioxidant defenses, disruption of protein synthesis and central metabolism	Inflammatory
Pyroptosis	Inflammasome/inflammatory caspases/gasdermins	Membrane bubbles, cell flattening	Inflammatory caspase activation, gasdermin cleavage, cell membrane pore, release of inflammatory intracellular contents	Inflammatory
Necroptosis	Death receptors/MLKL	Cell swelling, cell membrane rupture	RIPK1/3, MLKL phosphorylation, membrane ion channel, release of cellular contents	Inflammatory

Abbreviations: MLKL, mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase; MOMP, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization; ROS, reactive oxygen species.