Table 1.

List of Time-Restricted Eating Trials in Humans and Their Major Findings

Study	Participants	Trial length	Design	Intervention, Meal Time	Major Findings
(Carlson et al., 2007, Stote et al., 2007)	n = 15 (10 females, 5 males), normal weight	8 weeks	Cross-over	TRE: one isocaloric meal (5 pm–9 pm) Control: three meals/day	↓ Body weight, fat mass, blood pressure, glucose tolerance ↑ Fasting glucose
(LeCheminant et al., 2013)	n = 27 males, normal weight	2 weeks	Cross-over	TRE: 13-h TRE (6 am–7 pm) Control: AL	↓ 0.4 kg Body weight (vs ↑ 0.6 kg control condition)
(Gill and Panda, 2015)	n = 8 (3 females, 5 males), overweight	16 weeks	Within participant	TRE: 10–11 h (self-selected) Baseline: >14 h	↓ Body weight
(Moro et al., 2016)	n = 34 males, normal weight	8 weeks	Randomized controlled	TRE: 8 h (1 pm–8 pm) Control: 12 h (8 am–8 pm)	↓ Fat mass, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, total testosterone, IGF-1
(Tinsley et al., 2017)	n = 18 resistance trained males (10: RT-TRE; 8: RT-AL)	8 weeks	Randomized controlled	TRE: 4 h (anytime 4 pm to midnight) for 4 days a week Control: AL	↔ Body weight, fat mass
(Gabel et al., 2018)	n = 23 (20 females, 3 males), obese	12 weeks	Historical control	TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) Control: AL	↓ Body weight and blood pressure ↔ Fat mass, fasting glucose, LDL cholesterol, TG
(Sutton et al., 2018)	n = 8 males, overweight	5 weeks	Cross-over	eTRE: 6 h (8 am–2 pm, dinner before 3 pm) Control: 12 h	↓ Fasting TG, desire to eat in the evening ↑ Insulin sensitivity, β cell responsiveness ↔ Body weight
(Jamshed et al., 2019, Ravussin, 2019)	n = 11 (4 females and 7 males), overweight	4 days	Cross-over	TRE: 6 h (8 am–2 pm) Control: 12 h (8 am–8 pm)	↓ Mean 24-h glucose, glycemic excursions, morning ghrelin, desire to eat ↑ Daytime EE, metabolic flexibility, fullness, plasma ketones
(Hutchison et al., 2019)	n = 15 males, overweight	1 week	Cross-over	eTRE: 9 h (8 am–5 pm) dTRE: 9 h (12 pm–9 pm) Baseline: AL	↓ Body weight, fasting TG, and hunger ↓ Mean fasting glucose by CGM in eTRE ↑ Glucose tolerance
(Tinsley et al., 2019)	n = 40 females, resistance trained	8 weeks	Randomized controlled	TRE: 8 h (12 pm–8 pm) TRE plus β-hydroxy β-methyl butyrate	↓ Fat mass ↑ Muscle performance
(Anton et al., 2019)	n = 10 (6 females, 4 males), overweight, ≥65 years	4 weeks	Within participant	TRE: 8 h Baseline: AL	↓ Body weight
(Wilkinson et al., 2019)	n = 19 (6 females, 13 males), overweight	12 weeks	Within participant	TRE: 10 h (self-selected, dinner before 8 pm) Baseline: ≥ 14 h	↓ Body weight, fat mass, waist circumference, blood pressure, plasma cholesterol ↔ Fasting glucose, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, fasting insulin
(Kesztyus et al., 2019)	N = 40 (31 females, 9 males), with abdominal obesity	3 months	Within participant	TRE: 8 -9 h Baseline: AL	↓Waist circumference, HbA1c
(Parr et al., 2020)	n = 11 males, overweight	5 days	Cross-over	TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) Extended eating: 15 h (7 am–10 pm)	↓ Night-time glucose, glucose and insulin iAUC after lunch ↔ Daytime glucose ↑ TG after lunch
(Chow et al., 2020)	N = 20 (17 females, 3 males), overweight	12 weeks	Randomized controlled	TRE: 8 h Non-TRE: AL	↓Body weight, lean mass, and visceral fat mass.
(Gabel et al., 2020)	N = 14, overweight	12 weeks	Within participant	TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) Baseline: AL	↓Body weight, fat mass, systolic blood pressure ↔ Gut microbiome

n, number; TRE, time restricted eating; RT, resistance trained; AL, ad libitum; IGF, insulin like growth factor; TG, triglycerides; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; EE, energy expenditure; SIRT1, sirtuin1; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; CGM, continuous glucose monitoring; eTRE, early TRE; dTRE, delayed TRE; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; ↓, reduced; ↑, increased; ↔, no change.