Fig. 4.

Mitochondrial related changes associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, dysregulated neuronal Ca²⁺_, and neuroinflammation are hallmarks of brain aging (the other six hallmarks are deregulated energy metabolism, stem cell exhaustion, impaired molecular waste disposal, impaired DNA repair, impaired adaptive stress response, and aberrant neuronal network activity) . Increasing evidence suggested the hallmarks of brain aging affect several brain disease etiologies [316, 317]. MB and PBM can attenuate the pathological symptoms of several brain diseases and lead to neuroprotection by reducing various aspects of mitochondrial dysfunction