Table 1.

Summary of advantages and disadvantages of using various animal models to understand COPD

Animal model	Advantages	Disadvantages	COPD studies (Ref. No.)
Mouse	Genetic heterogeneity Diverse responses to lung injury Low comparative costs Abundance of species-specific reagents	Replication of severe COPD not possible Low number of submucosal glands Monopodial airway branching Obligate nose-breather Size makes pulmonary parameter measurement difficult	190, 228, 310, 311
Rat	Higher lung surface area compared to other rodents Greater size makes procedures easier Fibrotic depositions following smoke exposure	Lower genetic similarity to humans Monopodial airway structure Higher mucociliary clearance No goblet cells Fewer mucosal glands	312–316
Guinea pig	Similar inflammatory response to humans Uniform airway epithelial arrangement Docile Anthropomorphic response to smoke inhalation	Axon reflex controls inflammation Low genetic variation Few immunological markers Difficult blood collection (absence of tail/thick skin) Soft palate makes intratracheal procedures challenging	250, 317–321
Hamster	Higher nitric oxide production More important ciliated epithelium Moderate goblet cell numbers	Low availability of species-specific reagents Low genetic diversity Aggressive behavior (handling more challenging)	263, 322–324
Rabbit	Similar response to histamines and antigens More similar lung structure compared to rodents Larger size (procedures easier) Fairly docile Longer lifespan (longer studies)	Susceptibility to non-experimental disease No cough reflex Monopodial lung structure Different mucus composition	325–328
Dog	One lung can be used at a time Larger mouth (easier intratracheal procedure) Greater alveoli number More representative epithelial microstructure than rodents Cough reflex	Few species-specific reagents High housing costs	329–333
Pig	Large number of diverse breeds Organ-to-body weight similar to humans Similar lung structure to humans	Narrow mouth (intratracheal procedures challenging) High housing costs	334, 335
Sheep	Docile Dichotomous lung structure Similar mucus content to humans Similar response to smoke inhalation	Disease progression poorly understood Few species-specific reagents High risk of vomiting during procedure Need for human breathing devices	286, 288, 336, 337
Non-human primate	Dichotomous airway Genetic similarity Human reagents can be used	Skilled handling required Specialized equipment Higher costs Higher ethical implications	102, 338–343