Table 2.
Cross-Sectional Studies Examining Social Isolation/Loneliness
| Authors (year), country |
Sample |
Total N (% male participants) |
Child (≤11 y)/adolescent (12−18 y)/Young adult (≥19 y) |
Age range at baseline y, |
Mean age (SD) |
Social isolation/ loneliness measure |
Mental health measure |
Associations between social isolation/loneliness and mental health [r (p)] unless otherwise stated |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression |
Anxiety |
Other mental health |
||||||||
| Social isolation/loneliness and concurrent mental health symptoms | ||||||||||
| Alpaslan et al. (2016),17 Turkey | School students | 487 (41.7) | Adolescent | 14–19 | 16.07 (1.05) | UCLA Loneliness Scale | CDI, SDQ |
Male participants: OR 1.21 Female participants: OR 1.05 |
||
| Arslan (2020),18 Turkey | School students | 244 (47.5) | Adolescent | 14–18 | 16.27 (1.02) | 8-item UCLA Loneliness Scale-Short Form | Youth Internalizing and Externalizing behavior screeners | Lon - mental health problems 0.41 (<.001), β = 0.22 (<.01). | ||
| Baskin et al (2010),19 USA |
School students | 294 (NS) | Adolescent | NS Estimated 13-14 | 13.11 (0.469) | Children’s Loneliness Scale (CLS) | BDI-Y | R2 = .28 (<.001). Moderated by belongingness | ||
| Brage et al. (1993),20 Brage et al. (1995),21 USA | School students | 156 (39.7) | Adolescent | 11–18 | 14 (1.56) | Loneliness Inventory Short Form | CES-D (child version) | 0.646, (<.001) | ||
| Chang et al. (2017),22 USA |
University students | 228 (23.7) | Young adult | 18–28 | 19.69 (1.38) | Revised UCLA Loneliness scale | BDI, Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory | 0.69 (<.001). Regressions: 47% shared variance |
Lon - suicidal ideation 0.52 (<.001). Lon R2 = 26.9% variance in suicidal ideation |
|
| Doman and Le Roux (2012),23 South Africa | University students | 275 (42.3) | Young adult | 19–34 | 20.92 (NS) | Le Roux Loneliness Questionnaire | Psychological General Well-Being Index: anxiety + depressed mood | 0.517 (<.01). 26.7% shared variance. |
Anx: 0.365, (<.01) | |
| Erdur-Baker and Bugay (2011),24 Turkey | School students | 144 (54.2) | Adolescent | 11–15 | 12.5 (1.61) | LSDQ | CDI | 0.51 (NS) | ||
| Ginter et al. (1996),25 Israel | School students | 144 (45.1) | Adolescent | 11–16 | 13.90 (1.5) | The Loneliness Rating Scale (subscales for Frequency, Intensity, Duration) + additional 2 questions | Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) | Not lonely group: Frequency of Lon-Anx 0.33 (<.001), Intensity of Lon- Anx 0.18 (< .05) Lon group > Anx t = 3.81 (<.001), |
||
| Heredia et al. (2017),26 USA |
School students | 394 (50.2) | Adolescent | 12–15 | 13.52 (0.63) | LSDQ | Well-being - World Health Organisation Well-being Index (WHO-5) | Lon−well-being 0.111, (<.05) Hierarchical linear regression: loneliness accounted for 1.3% of variance in well-being |
||
| Houghton et al (2016),27 Australia | School students | 1143 (46.3) | Adolescent | 10.1–16 | 13.20 (1.2) | Perth Aloneness Scale (includes (friendship-related loneliness subscale) | Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale (WEMWBS) | Friendship related Lon−well-being 0.36 (< .001) | ||
| Hudson et al. (2000),28 USA |
Adolescent mothers post-partum recruited from primary health care practices | 21 (0) | Adolescent | 16–19 | 18 (1.14) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | CES-D (child version) | 0.53 (<.05) | ||
| Hutcherson and Epkins (2009),29 USA |
Female school students (and their mothers) | 100 (0) | Child | 9–12 | 10.52 (1.04) | Loneliness Scale (LS) | Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised (SASC-R), CDI | 0.62 (<.001). Controlling for social Anx 0.36 (<.001) |
Social anx: 0.65 (<.001) Controlling for Dep 0.49 (<001) | |
| Jackson and Cochran (1991),30 USA |
University students | 293 (49.8) | Young adult | 17–26 | Median 19 | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) | 0.54 (<.001). Controlling for overall symptoms 0.23 (<.01) |
General Anx: 0.37 (<.001) | Obsessive- compulsive disorder 0.40 (<.001) |
| Johnson et al (2001),31 USA |
University students | 124 (43.5) | Young adult | 17–21 | Male participants 19.41 (NS) Female participants 19.69 (NS) |
UCLA Loneliness Scale (Revised) | Franke and Hymel Social Anxiety and Social Avoidance Scale | Soc anx: F6,115 = 4.23 (<.05) β = 0.24 (<.01) R2 = 0.31 (<.01) |
||
| Kim (2001),32Korea | University students | 452 (44.7) | Young adult | 18–25 | 20.9 (2.0) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | BDI | Male participants: β = 0.49 (<.01). 24% shared variance | ||
| Koenig et al. (1994),33USA | School students | 397 (38.3) | Adolescent | 14–18 | NS | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | BDI | Male participants: 0.55 (<.001) Female participants: 0.49 (<.001) |
||
| Lasgaard, Goosens et al. (2011),34Denmark | School students | 1009 (43) | Adolescent | NS | 17.11 (1.11) | SELSA–SF (3 subscales: social lon, family-related lon, romantic lon) | BAI-Y, BDI-Y, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS), Suicide Ideation subscale from the Suicide Probability Scale, Deliberate self-harm (DSH), Risk Behavior related to Eating Disorders (RiBED-8) |
23% of the variance Peer-related lon – Dep β= 0.26, r2 = 0.076; family-related lon – Dep β = 0.29, r2 = 0.089 | Anx: 14% shared variance Peer-related Lon β = .21 r2 = .045. Family- related Lon β = .21 r2 = .045 Social Anx: 21% shared variance. Peer-related Lon β = .33 r2 = .109. Romantic Lon β = 0.19 r2 = 0.040. |
Suicidal ideation (SI): 14% shared variance. Peer-related Lon – SI β = 0.17, r2 = 0.027. Family-related Lon – SI β = 0.26, r2 = .061 Self-harm: 10% shared variance. Family-related Lon β = 0.31, r2 = 0.081. Eating disorder (ED): risk behavior: 6% shared variance Family related lon – ED β = .22, r2 = .041 |
| Lau et al. (1999),35Hong Kong | School students | 6,356 (NS estimated 48) | Child/adolescent | 9–14 | NS | Marcoen and Brumagne’s Loneliness Scale (3 subscales: Peer-Related Lon, Parent-Related Lon, and Aloneness) |
CDI, RCADS |
Primary school students: 0.71 (<.001) Peer-related Lon 0.67 (<.001), parent-related Lon 0.49 (<.001), aloneness – 0.65 (<.001). 46% shared variance Secondary school students: 0.81 (<.001) Peer-related Lon 0.77, (<.001), parent-related Lon 0.56 (<.001), aloneness – Dep 0.72 (<.001) 65% shared variance |
||
| Majd Ara et al. (2017),36 Iran | Female school students | 301 (0) | Adolescent | 15–18 | 16.6 (1.1) | Children’s Loneliness Scale | DASS-21 | 0.66 (NS). | ||
| Mahon et al. (2001),37USA | School students | 127 (43.3) | Adolescent | 12–14 | 12.9 (0.63) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | Profile of Mood States - Depression- Dejection subscale | 0.57 (<.001). | ||
| Markovic and Bowker (2015),38 USA |
School students | 157 (45) | Adolescent | NS | 13.84 (.75) | LSDQ | YSR | 0.39 (<.001) | Anx: 0.35 (<.001) | |
| Matthews et al. (2016),39 UK |
Twin birth cohort | 2066 (49) | Young adult | 18 | 18.4 (0.36) | Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) | Diagnostic Interview Schedule | 0.21 (<.001) | ||
| McIntyre et al. (2018), UK | University students | 1135 | Young adult | NS | 20.78 (4.35) | UCLA Loneliness Scale | PHQ-9, GAD=-7, Self-harm (4 items) |
0.58 (<.001) β = 0.52 (<.001) |
Anx: 0.54 (<.001) β = 0.50 (<.001) |
|
| Moore and Schultz (1983),41USA | School students | 99 (45) | Adolescent | 14–19 | 17 (0.98) | UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS) + frequency, duration, characteristics and perceived causes of loneliness | SDS, STAI |
0.66 (<.001). Lon duration 0.46, (<.001) Lon frequency -Dep 0.70 (<.001) |
State anx: 0.48 (<.001) Lon duration 0.37 (<.001) Lon frequency 0.48 (<.001) |
|
| Mounts et al. (2006),42 USA |
University students – ethnically diverse sample | 350 (36) | Young adult | 18–19 | NS | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | BDI, BAI |
β = 0.51, (<.001) | Anx β = 0.30 (<.001) |
|
| Neto and Barros (2000),43 Portugal | School students | 487 (39.3) | Adolescent | NS (estimated 15–18) | Cape Verde 17.5 (1.2): Portugal 17.8 (1.0). | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | Social Anxiety subscale | Social Anx 0.33−0.35 (<.001) | ||
| Purwono and French (2016),44 Indonesia |
Muslim school students | 453 (45.9) | Adolescent | 13–16 | 7th grade: 13.57 (0.44) 10th grade: 16.47 (0.43) |
10 items from UCLA Loneliness Scale - modified | CES-D | 0.59 (<.01). | ||
| Richardson et al. (2019),45 Australia | Community | 528 (51) | Child/Adolescent | 10−12 | 11.18 (0.56) | 3 Items from School Belonging and Isolation Scale | SCAS-C– subscales generalized anx, social Anx and separation Anx 3 item SMFQ | 0.46 (<.001). | Social Anx 0.50 (<.001). Generalized Anx 0.42 (<.001) Separation anx 0.41 (<.001) |
|
| Roberts and Chen (1995),46USA | School students | 2614 (n.s) | Adolescent | 11–14 | NS (NS) | 8 item UCLA Loneliness Scale | CES-D, 4 suicide items from Oregan Adolescent Depression Project |
OR = 5.8 (<.001) | Suicidal ideation: OR 5.0 | |
| Singhvi et al. (2011),47India | School students | 300 (50) | Adolescent | 15–17 | NS | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | SDS, Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale |
Male participants: 0.461(<.001) Female participants: 0.683 (<.001) Male participants: Lon associated with Dep t = 6.32 (<.005) β = 0.461 Female participants: Lon associated with Dep t = 11.38 (<.005) β = 0.683 |
Male participants: Lon associated with perceived stress [t=1.50, p<.01, β=-.108] | |
| Spithoven et al. (2017),48 Belgium and Netherlands | NS | Sample 1: 417 (48.4) Sample 2: 1140 (48.7) |
Adolescent | NS | Sample 1: 12.47 (1.89) Sample 2: 12.81 (0.42). |
LACA – peer-related loneliness subscale | Sample 1: CDI. Sample 2: Iowa short form of CES-D. |
Sample 1: 0.48 (<.001) Sample 2: 0.54 (<.001) |
||
| Stednitz and Epkins (2006),49 USA |
Community sample | 102 (0) | Child | 9–12 | 10.46 (1) | LSDQ | CDI, Social Anxiety Scale for Children – Revised (child and parent versions) |
0.63 (<.001) | Social anx: self-rated 0.72 (<.001). Mother-rated 0.36 (<.001) |
|
| Stacciarini et al. (2015),50 USA |
Church and community (Latina/o immigrants) | 31 (42) | Adolescent | 11–18 | 13.0 (2.0) | Short version of PROMIS Health Organisation Social Isolation | SF-12 Health survey | Mental health r = −0.38 (<.05) | ||
| Stickley et al. (2016),51 Czech, Russia and USA |
School students | Sample 1: 2205 (NS) Sample 2: 1995 (NS) Sample 3: 2050 (NS) |
Adolescent | 13–15 | NS | Lon item from CES-D | CES-D (minus Lon item), 12 statement anxiety scale |
ORs: 8.04−40.13 | Anx: ORs: 1.63−5.49 | |
| Swami et al. (2007),52Malaysia | University students | 172 (41.8) | Young adult | 18–24 | 20.3 (1.25) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | BDI | 0.38 (<0.01). | ||
| Thomas and Bowker (2015),53USA | School students | 103 (51.4) | Child/Adolescent | NS (estimated 10-13) | 13.73 (0.82) | LSDQ | YSR | 0.42 (<0.1) | ||
| Tu and Zhang (2014),54 China |
University students | 444 (38.4) | Young adult | NS | 19.02 (1.26) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | CES-D (7 item version), Perceived Stress Scale | γ = 0.517 (<.001) β = 0.833 (<.001) |
Stress: γ = 0.381 (<.001) β = 0.297 (<.001) |
|
| Uba et al. (2012),55 Malaysia |
School students | 242 (49.2) | Adolescent | 13–16 | 14.67 (1.27) | Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale | CDI | 0.493 (<.01) | ||
| Vanhalst, Luyckx, Raes (2012),56 Belgium |
University students | 370 (16.5) | Young adult | NS | 18.22 (1.21) | LACA | CES-D | Peer-related Lon 0.58 (.001) Parent-related Lon 0.23 (<.001) | ||
| Wang and Yao (2020),57 China | Schools (left behind children in rural China) | 442 (54) | Child/Adolescent | 8–16 | 11.5 (2.098) | UCLA Loneliness Scale | Social Anxiety Subscale | Social Anx: 0.332 (<.001) | ||
| Xu and Chen (2019),58 China |
School students | 724 (59.5) | Child/Adolescent | 6–14 | 9.15 (1.79) | LSDQ | CES-D | 0.492 (<.01) | ||
| Yadegarfard et al. (2014),59 Thailand |
Transgender association and university (male transgender and cis gender) | 260 (100) | Adolescent/Young adult | 15–25 | 20 (NS) | SSA | DASS-21 (short version), Positive and Negative Suicide Inventory | Transgender: Social support−Dep (B = −0.01) Lower social support associated with higher negative risk factors related to suicidal behavior (B = 0.13) Cisgender: Social support−Dep (B = 0.23) Lower social support associated with higher negative risk factors related to suicidal behavior (B = 0.15) |
||
| Social Isolation/Quarantine in the Context of Infectious Disease | ||||||||||
| Sprang and Silman (2013),60 USA, Canada, and Mexico |
Parents of children (who experienced H1N1/SARS/ avian flu pandemics) | 398 (NS) | Child | NS | NS | Children experienced pandemic; 20.9% social isolation and 3.8% quarantine | PTSD-RI; PCL-C | PTSD-RI: Children who experienced isolation/quarantine were more likely to meet cut-off score for PTSD (30%) than those who had not been in isolation or quarantine; 1.1%; χ2 = 49.56 (<.001), Cramer V = 0.449 Mean scores in isolated/quarantined group (22.3) were 4 times those in general group (5.5); t = 6.59 (.000) PCL-CL: Children who experienced isolation/quarantine were more likely to meet cut-off score for PTSD (28%); χ2 = 31.44 (<.001) |
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Note: Anx = Anxiety; BAI = Beck Anxiety Inventory; BAI-Y = Beck Anxiety Inventory for Youth; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory; BDI-Y = Beck Depression Inventory for Youth; CBCL = Child Behaviour Checklist; CDI = Children’s Depression Inventory; CES-D = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; DASS-21 Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, Dep = depression; GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder – 7; Lon = Loneliness; LSDQ = Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire; LACA = Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents; OR = Odds Ratio; PCL-C = PTSD Checklist Civilian Version; PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire; PTSD-RI = UCLA Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index; RCADS = Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale; SAS-A = Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents; SCAS-C = Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale- Child; SDS = Zung Self-rating Depression Scale; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; SELSA = Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults; SMFQ = Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire-Child; SSA = Social Support Appraisals scale; STAI = State Trait Anxiety Inventory; TRF = Teacher Rating Form; YSR = Youth Self-Report Form.