Table 3.
In vitro studies on immunological properties of NPs
| NPs | cell response | cell frequence/activity | Potential effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| TiO2 (6-48 h) | ↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [121–125] | ↗ DC, μɸ, lymphocytes [121, 122, 126] | Innate inflammatory response [122, 126–128] |
| ↗ expression of TLR (TLR3, TLR4, TLR7 and TLR10) [126, 128] | ↗ naïve T cells [122] | Cytotoxicity and inflammation [122, 123, 125, 129] | |
| ↗ pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β) [121–123, 127, 130–132] | ↗ mature DC [122, 131, 132] | Adjuvant [121, 130–132] | |
| ↗ chemokines secretion (IL-8 and CXCL1) ↙ activity (IL-8) [122, 133] | ↗ mast cell activation [134] | Allergic response [134, 135] | |
| ↗ co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86) [122, 123, 131, 132] | ↙ neutrophil and μɸ mobility [133] | Tissue damage [124, 133] | |
| ↗ MPO, MMP-9 and NET [124, 136] | ↗ neutrophil activity [124, 136] | NETosis: inflammation, necrosis and apoptosis [124] | |
| ↗ β-hexosaminidase release [134] | |||
| inflammasome activation [123] | |||
| activation of NFkB pathway [128, 131] | |||
| SiO2 (6-48 h) | ↗ apoptose [123, 125, 137, 138] | ↙ DC and lymphocytes [123, 137, 138] | Imbalance of immune response [125, 126, 137–140] |
| ↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL1-β, IL-2, TNF-α) [121, 123, 126, 138, 139, 141] | ↗ DC maturation [123, 139] | Immunogenic or adjuvant potential [121, 123, 126, 140, 141] | |
| ↗ CD80, CD86 and MHCII [123, 138, 139] | ↗ M1 μɸ polarization [126, 140] | Inflammation [121, 123, 125, 126, 137–141] | |
| ↙ TLR9 expression [126] | ↗ neutrophil activity [142] | ↗ Susceptibility IBD [123, 126, 140], autoimmune diseases [139, 140] | |
| ↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [125] | ↗ cross-presentation [141] | NETosis: inflammation, necrosis and apoptosis [142] | |
| inflammasome activation [123] | Cytotoxic effect [121, 123, 125, 137, 138, 140] | ||
| NFkB activation [138] | Susceptibility to infection [126] | ||
| ↗ DNA release – NET [142] | Allergic response [135] | ||
| ZnO (6-48 h) | ↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-ɣ) [125, 130, 143, 144] | ↗ DC activity [130, 145] | Cytotoxicity and inflammation [125, 129, 130, 134, 143, 146] |
| ↗ chemokines secretion (IL-8, CXCL9) [130, 144] | ↙ Lymphocytes [146] | Imbalance of immune response [125, 129, 130, 143, 144] | |
| ↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [125, 145] | ↗ neutrophil functions [136] | Chronic pathologies [143] | |
| induces neo-synthesis of polypeptides [144] | ↙ mast cell activation [134] | Allergenic response [134, 135] | |
| ↙ or ↗ apoptose [125, 129, 130, 144] | ↗ eosinophils [144] | Protective effect [134, 144] | |
| ↗ DNA damage [125, 129, 146] | Genomic instability [146] | ||
| ↙ β-hexosaminidase and histamine release [134] | Cell cycle imbalanced [125] | ||
| Ag (6-48 h) | ↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [147–149] | ↙ μɸ, lymphocyte [147–149] | Apoptosis and cytotoxicity [147–149] |
| ↗ DNA damage [148] | ↗ mast cell activation [135, 150, 151] | Inflammation/imbalance of immune response [147–149] | |
| ↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α) [147, 149] | Allergic response [135, 150, 151] | ||
| inflammasome activation [147] | |||
| ↗ β-hexosaminidase release [135, 150, 151] |
CD Cluster of differentiation, CXCL1 chemokine ligand 1, DC dendritic cell, IBD Inflammatory bowel disease, Ig immunoglobulin, IL interleukin, μɸ macrophage, MHCII major histocompatibility complex II, MMP-9 matrix metalloproteinase 9, MPO myeloperoxidase, NET Neutrophil extracellular trap, NFkB nuclear factor-kappa B, ROS reactive oxygen species, TLR Toll-like receptor