TABLE 1.
Routes of infection of viruses associated with honey bees. Overview of their horizontal and vertical transmission routes.
| Virus | Transmission |
|||||
| Horizontal |
Vertical |
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| Oral* | Fecal | Body Contact | Venereal | Vector-mediated | Queen to eggs | |
| IAPV | + | + | + | Ve.S. | + (Vd) | + |
| ABPV | + | + | BC.S | Ve.S. | Vd.S., Tm.S. | + |
| KBV | + | + | BC.S | – | + (Vd) | + |
| BQCV | + | + | ? | Ve.S. | – | + |
| DWV | + | + | – | + | + (Vd, Tm, At.S.) | + |
| SBV | + | – | – | Ve.S. | – | + |
| SBPV | + | ? | ? | ? | + (Vd) | ? |
| CWV | O.S. | ? | ? | ? | – | ? |
| CBPV | + | + | + | – | Vd.S | + |
| LSV | + | ? | ? | – | Vd.S. | + |
| BeeMLV | ? | ? | ? | ? | Vd.S. | ? |
| AmFV | + | ? | ? | Ve.S. | – | + |
| ALPV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | + |
| ARV-1/BRV-1 | ? | ? | ? | ? | Vd.S. | ? |
| ARV-2/BRV-2 | ? | ? | ? | ? | Vd.S. | ? |
| ABV-1 | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| ABV-2 | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| ArkBV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| BerkBPV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| BSRV | ? | ? | ? | – | ? | ? |
| C/TSBV | + | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| BVX | + | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| BVY | + | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| VTLV | ? | ? | ? | ? | Vd.S. | ? |
| AIV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| MV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| VDV-2 | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| VDV-3 | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| VOV-1 | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| AFV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| ANV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| ADV | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
ABPV, Acute bee paralysis virus; ABV-1, Apis bunyavirus-1; ABV-2, Apis bunyavirus-2; AmFV, Apis mellifera filamentous virus; ADV, Apis dicistrovirus; AIV, Apis iridescent virus (Bailey et al., 1979); ArkBV and BerkBPV, Arkansas bee virus and Berkeley bee virus (Bailey and Woods, 1974); AFV, Apis mellifera flavivirus; ANV, Apis Nora virus; ARV-1/BRV-1, Apis/Bee rhabdovirus-1; ARV-2/BRV-2, Apis/Bee rhabdovirus-2; BeeMLV, Bee Macula-like virus; BVX and BVY, Bee virus X and Y (Bailey et al., 1983a); BSRV, Big Sioux river virus (Runckel et al., 2011); BQCV, Black queen cell virus; IAPV, Israeli acute paralysis virus; C/TSBV, Chinese/Thai sacbrood virus; CWV, Cloudy wing virus; CBPV, Chronic bee paralysis virus; DWV, Deformed wing virus; KBV, Kashmir bee virus; LSV, Lake Sinai virus; MV, Moku virus; SBV, Sacbrood virus; SBPV, Slow bee paralysis virus; VDV-2 and VDV-3, Varroa destructor virus-2 and -3 (Levin et al., 2016); VOV-1, Varroa orthomyxovirus-1 (Levin et al., 2019); VTLV, Varroa Tymo-like virus (de Miranda et al., 2015). *, including trophallaxis, gut content and contaminated food; +, transmission confirmed; –, non-demonstrated transmission; ?, unknown; O.S., suggested oral transmission by presence in sealed brood; BC.S, suggested transmission by body contact; Ve.S., suggested venereal transmission by presence in semen and/or spermatheca; Vd, transmission confirmed by Varroa destructor; Vd.S., suggested vector-mediated transmission by Varroa destructor; Tm, transmission confirmed by Tropilaelaps mercedesae; Tm.S., suggested vector-mediated transmission by Tropilaelaps mercedesae; At.S., suggested vector-mediated transmission by Aethina tumida.