Table 5.
Determinants for cost of seeking care, in USD
| Variables | Total costs | Direct costs | Indirect costs | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (95% CI) |
β (95% CI) | P | Mean (95% CI) |
β (95% CI) | P | Mean (95% CI) |
β (95% CI) | P | |
| Costs | 22 (18–26) | 16 (13–19) | 6 (4–7) | ||||||
| First contact facility | |||||||||
| Primary Health Centre | 14 (10–17) | Ref | 8 (6–10) | Ref | 6 (4–8) | Ref | |||
| Private clinic | 32 (23–41) | 18.41 (10.35–26.47) | < 0.001 | 25 (18–32) | 16.87 (10.54–23.20) | < 0.001 | 7 (4–10) | 1.75 (−1.44–4.95) | 0.280 |
| Public hospital | 18 (9–27) | 5.30 (−6.46–17.06) | 0.376 | 13 (7–18) | 4.98 (−4.22–14.18) | 0.288 | 6 (1–10) | 0.19 (− 4.48–4.85) | 0.937 |
| Private hospital | 37 (22–52) | 24.96 (10.64–39.28) | 0.001 | 36 (20–51) | 28.38 (17.18–39.58) | < 0.001 | 1 (0–3) | −3.50 (−9.19–2.18) | 0.226 |
| Other health provider | 18 (7–29) | 5.38 (−14.02–24.78) | 0.586 | 14 (5–24) | 6.83 (−8.40–22.06) | 0.378 | 4 (−1–8) | −1.32 (− 8.99–6.36) | 0.736 |
| District | |||||||||
| Urban | 23 (14–31) | Ref | 16 (9–22) | Ref | 7 (4–10) | Ref | |||
| Suburban | 20 (15–25) | −1.18 (−12.55–10.20) | 0.839 | 16 (11–21) | 1.81 (−6.89–10.50) | 0.683 | 3 (2–5) | −3.23 (− 7.94–1.48) | 0.178 |
| Rural | 23 (19–28) | 1.80 (−9.79–13.39) | 0.760 | 17 (13–20) | 1.57 (− 7.22–10.36) | 0.725 | 7 (5–9) | 0.23 (− 4.62–5.08) | 0.926 |
| Household income level‡ | |||||||||
| Poor | 22 (17–28) | 1.93 (−5.77–9.63) | 0.622 | 17 (13–21) | 1.59 (−4.57–7.74) | 0.612 | 6 (4–7) | 0.16 (−2.80–3.11) | 0.918 |
| Non-poor | 21 (16–26) | Ref | 15 (11–19) | Ref | 6 (3–8) | Ref | |||
| Education level± | |||||||||
| Low | 22 (18–27) | 0.42 (−7.40–8.24) | 0.916 | 17 (13–20) | 0.61 (−5.638–6.86) | 0.848 | 6 (4–8) | −0.22 (−3.25–2.75) | 0.869 |
| Middle-high | 22 (16–27) | Ref | 16 (12–20) | Ref | 6 (4–8) | Ref | |||
| National health insurance | |||||||||
| Covered | 20 (16–23) | −5.50 (−13.17–2.17) | 0.159 | 14 (12–17) | −4.785 (− 10.89–1.32) | 0.124 | 5 (4–7) | −0.64 (−3.59–2.32) | 0.672 |
| Not covered | 26 (18–34) | Ref | 19 (13–26) | Ref | 7 (4–9) | Ref | |||
| Workers in informal sectors | |||||||||
| Yes | 23 (18–28) | 3.26 (−4.82–11.34) | 0.428 | 16 (12–20) | −0.52 (−7.04–6.00) | 0.876 | 7 (5–9) | 3.92 (0.88–6.96) | 0.012 |
| No | 19 (15–24) | Ref | 16 (12–20) | Ref | 3 (2–4) | Ref | |||
Direct costs include those incurred by patients and/or their guardians during the pre-diagnostic phase for consultation, administrative fees, diagnostic tests (sputum and/or X-ray examination), food, and travel. Indirect costs include their income losses due to visits to healthcare facilities during the pre-diagnostic phase. Total costs are the sum of direct and indirect costs. β is the GLMM coefficient of the expected change in the number of visits compared to the reference category; CI confidence interval; Ref reference; P value of significance; ‡ Household earning below 1.9 USD per capita per day was classified as a poor household. ± A patient who did not graduate from elementary school was classified as having low education level