Table 1.

DAMPs and PAMPs in ALD.

Origin	Ligands	Receptors	Functions	Cells	Refs.
DAMPs	Glutamate	mGluR5	2-AG production	HSC	24
	HMGB1	TLR4, RAGE	Post-translational modification	Macrophage/Kupffer cell	7
	ATP	P2X7	Inflammasome activation	Macrophage/Kupffer cell	9
	MicroRNA (miRNA)	‒	M1 polarization	Macrophage/Kupffer cell	14
	Mitochondrial dsRNA	TLR3	IL-1β	Macrophage	16
	Mitochondrial DNA	TLR9, NLRP3	IL-1β, IL-17A	Kupffer cell/neutrophil/tumor cell	8,20
	Nuclear (apoptotic) DNA	TLR9	TGF-β, collagen	HSC	19
	EV ligands (miRNA, CD40L, HSP90)	CD40	TNF-α, IL-1β, M1 polarization	Macrophage/Kupffer cell	13,21,22
	Metabolites (RAs)	RARs, RXRs	RAE, IFN-γ	HSCs	27,29–31
	Lipids (FFAs, TG)	CD36	Lipotoxicity	Hepatocyte	42,57
PAMPs	LPS	TLR4	TNF-α, IL-1β	Kupffer cell	35,36
	LTA	TLR2	TNF-α	Kupffer cell	36
	CpG DNA	TLR9	TNF-α	Kupffer cell	21
	Flagellin	TLR5	TNF-α, IL-22	Kupffer cell, Immune cell at the ileum	36,37
	β-glucan	CLEC7A	IL-1β	Kupffer cell	87

mGluR5 metabotropic glutamate receptor 5, 2-AG 2-Arachidonoylglycerol, HSC hepatic stellate cell, HMGB1 high mobility group box-1, TLR toll-like receptor, ATP adenosine triphosphate, IL interleukin, NLRP3 NLR family pyrin domain containing 3, TGF transforming growth factor, EV extracellular vesicle, CD40L CD40 ligand, HSP90 heat shock protein 90, TNF tumor necrosis factor, RA retinoic acid, RAR retinoic acid receptors, RXRs retinoid X receptor, RAE retinoic acid early inducible, IFN interferon, FFA free fatty acid, TG triglyceride, LPS lipopolysaccharide, LTA lipoteichoic acid, CLEC7A C-type lectin domain containing 7A.