Table 1.
Groups | Carcinogens | Mechanisms of DNA damage | References |
---|---|---|---|
Radiation | UVA | Direct formation of DNA lesions, oxidation, and damage to DNA repair proteins | [38] |
UVB | ↑ CPDs | [39] | |
IR | ↑ DSBs, secondary effects: generation of abasic sites and SSBs | [40] | |
PAH | B[a]P | ↑ B[a]P diol epoxidation (BPDE) and BPDE–DNA adducts | [41] |
DMBA | ↑ Covalent adducts with DNA, formation of depurinated abasic sites within DNA | [42] | |
HAA | PhIP | ↑ DNA adducts: PhIP-C8-dG | [37] |
IQ | ↑ IQ-DNA adducts | [43, 44] | |
N-nitroso-compounds | NDMA | ↑ DNA adducts, the conversion into methylamines and induction of o-methylguanine | [45] |
Drugs | DXR | ↑ DNA DSBs and DNA adducts, ↑ oxygen free radicals | [46] |
MMC | Alkylation DNA, generation DNA cross-links | [47] | |
DES | ↑ DES-DNA adducts (3′-OH-DES-6′-N3Ade and 3′-OH-DES-6′-N7Gua) | [48] | |
ETP | Topoisomerase II inhibitor, ↑ DNA DSBs | [49] | |
Alkylating agents | MNU/NMU | ↑ DNA methylation adducts O(6)-methylguanine, minor products: O2-methylcytosine (O2MeC) and O2-methylthymine (O2MeT) | [50, 51] |
AOM | Mutation in exon 3of Ctnnb gene, constitutive activation of the Wnt pathway | [52] | |
Mycotoxins | AFB1 | ↑ AFB1-DNA adducts (AFB1-N(7)-guanine) | [53, 54] |
Environmental | Arsenic | DNA repair inhibition, gene expression alterations via epigenetic modifications | [55] |
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; HAA heterocyclic aromatic amines; UVA ultraviolet A; UVB ultraviolet B; IR ionising radiation; B[a]P benzo[a]pyrene; DMBA 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene; PhIP 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine; IQ 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline; NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine; DXR doxorubicin; MMC mitomycin C; DES diethylstilbestrol; ETP etoposide; MNU/NMU N-methyl-N-nitrosourea; AOM azoxymethane; AFB1 aflatoxin B1; CPDs cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers; DSBs double-strand breaks; SSBs single-strand breaks
↑increase/induce