Table 2.
Medicinal plant species used in the management of snakebites in Acholi, Teso and Karamoja sub-regions of Uganda
| Family/scientific name (voucher number) | Local name (language) | Parts used | Habit | Mode of preparation and administration | Wild/domesticated | Frequency of mention | Documented use in the treatment of snakebite envenomation elsewhere |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amaranthaceae | |||||||
| 1. Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad) Schinz (ODF 001) | Kulabakak (Ik) | R | H | Apply powder to bite area after making small cuts with a razor blade. | W | 10 | No reports |
| Amaryllidiaceae | |||||||
| 2. Allium cepa L. (ODF 019) | Tungulu (Luo) | Blb | H | Decoction and drink | D | 1 | Externally applied for the treatment of snakebite in Salem district of India [21] and Colombia [22]. Bulbs are chewed for snakebite in eastern and central Uganda [10, 11]. |
| 3. Ammocharis tinneana (Kotschy & Peyr.) Milne-Redh. & Schweick (ODF 025) | Joda (Luo) | L | H | Decoction and drink | D | 1 | No reports |
| 4. Crinum macowanii Baker (ODF 20) | (Ateso) | B | H | Powdered and mixed with powder of C. cyphopetalum and applied topically. Powder also dissolved in and drink. | 10 | No reports | |
| Annonaceae | |||||||
| 5. Annona chrysopylla (ODF 023) | Obolo (Luo) | L, R St | Sh | Decoction. Stems and leaves used for repelling snakes | W | 4 | No reports |
| 6. Annona senegalensis Pers. (ODF 002) | Obolo (Luo) | R/L | T |
Pound and mix with water. Drink once/chew root and apply on the bitten area the next day. Stems barks used to repel snakes |
W/D | 9 | Methanolic leaf extracts inhibited Echis ocellatus (Viper) venom activities [23]. Methanol root extract reduced hyperthermia and directly detoxified snake venom by 16–33% in rats against cobra (Naja nigricotlis nigricotlis) venom in rats [24]. |
| Apiaceae | |||||||
| 7. Steganotaenia araliaceae Hochst. (ODF 003) | Segere (Ik) | L | S |
Chew and swallow juice as first aid. Pound leaves, mix with water & wash out the venom from eyes to avert blindness. |
W | 16 | Used in western Kenya for snakebite [14] |
| Asparagaceae | |||||||
| 8. Albuca abyssinica Jacq. (ODF 004) | Amujej (Ateso) | Blb/L | H | Crush leaves/bulbs, mix with water and drink as a purgative/apply on the bitten area/planted as a snake repellent | W | 3 | No reports |
| 9. Chlorophytum spp 1 (ODF 022) | Emutungulu akwangan (Ateso) | Tb | H | Pound and apply on the snake bitten area | D | 2 | No reports |
| 10. Chlorophytum spp 2 (ODF 024) | Eryau (Ateso) | Tb | H | Chew fresh roots | D | 2 | No reports |
| 11. Sansevieria trifasciata Prain (ODF 036) | Tworo (Luo) | L | H | Pound and drink juice. Apply topically | W | 3 | Snake bites and poison antidote in southern Uganda [25] |
| Asteraceae | |||||||
| 12. Echinops longifolius A. Rich. (ODF 011) | Ofilifil (Ik), okeya (Luo) | L | H | Burn to make and apply on bitten site once only/rub directly on bitten part/mix 1 tsp with water. | W | 9 | No reports |
| 13. Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv. (ODF 013) | Lukwang (Luo) | R | H | Pound, mix with water and drink once only/chew and apply on site the next day | W | 3 | Used in northern Uganda [26]. A novel crystalline caffeic acid from roots has anti-venom agents for hemolytic snake venoms [27]. |
| 14. Echinops issphaerocephalus L (ODF 005) | Okeya (Luo) | R | H | Pound, mix with water and drink once only/chew and apply on site the next day | W | 2 | No reports |
| 15. Erigeron floribundus (Kunth) Sch.Bip. (ODF 021) | Ejut dolei (Ateso) | L | H | Squeeze juice and drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days | W | 3 | No reports |
| 16. Lactuca inermis Forssk. (ODF 027) | Ekile (Ateso) | R | H | Mix the powder with cold water & drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days | W | 3 | No reports |
| 17. Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (ODF 006) | Ekiya Lo’emun (Ik), Etutum (Ateso) | R | H | Pound and mix with water and drink for 2 days/mix powder with cold water and drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days | W | 13 | Used in Mukono district in central Uganda for snakebite treatment [10, 28]. An infusion is drunk for snakebite [11]. |
| 18. Sigesbeckia orientalis L. (ODF 035) | Yat twol (Luo) | L | H | Squeeze juice and drink/paste apply topically | W | 5 | No reports |
| 19. Vernonia biafrae Oliv. & Heirn (ODF 030) | Ebwolibwol (Ateso) | R | H | Pound and mix with water and drink as a purgative | W | 2 | No reports |
| Colchicaceae | |||||||
| 20. Gloriosa superba L (ODF 007) | Lobon bong (Ik) | R | H | Powder sometimes mixed with the powder of G. dalenii for various snake types, spider and scorpion stings. | W/D | 8 | No reports |
| Convolvulaceae | |||||||
| 21. Astripomoe amalvacea (Klotzsch) A. Meeuse (ODF 008) | Apom (Ateso) | R/St | H | Pound and mix with water and drink once a day for 2–5 day | W | 3 | A paste from the tuber is applied externally on snakebite wounds [21, 29]. |
| Crassulaceae | |||||||
| 22. Kalanchoe sp. (ODF 032) | Ecucuka (Ateso) | L | H | Leaf juice/paste taken orally | W/D | 2 | No reports |
| 23. Bryophyllum delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Druce (ODF 031) | Omucaga (Ateso) | L | H | Leaf juice/paste taken orally | D | 2 | No reports |
| Cucurbitaceae | |||||||
| 24. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (ODF 033) | Bomo twol (Luo) | R | H | Decoction | W | 2 | No reports |
| Euphorbiaceae | |||||||
| 25. Euphorbia hirta L (ODF 029) | Acakacak (Luo) Orurungo (Ateso) | B | H | Decoction | W | 5 | Roots are eaten for snakebite in central Uganda [10]. |
| 26. Euphorbia hypericifolia L. (ODF 009) | Loje (Ik) | L | H | Pound/squeeze juice and apply directly to bitten part twice a day for 2 days | W | 6 | No reports |
| 27. Euphorbia tirucalli L. (ODF 028) | Kilajok (Luo) | Sp | H | Drink sap and apply topically | D | 2 | Western Uganda [16] |
| Fabaceae | |||||||
| 28. Canavalia ensiformis (L) DC. (ODF 026) | Yat twol (Luo) | Sd | H | Chew seeds | D | 2 | No reports |
| 29. Glycine max(L.) Merr. (ODF 037) | Soya (Luo) | Sd | H | Chew seeds | D | 1 | Seeds used in central Uganda [10]. |
| 30. Indigofera arrecta A.Rich. (ODF 040) | Eragwii (Ateso) | R | Decoction and drink or powder applied topically | W | 5 | Roots used for snakebites as a poultice [11]. A leaf infusion drunk for snakebites [30] | |
| 31. Indigofera spicata Forssk. (ODF 038) | Yat twol (Luo) | R, L and S | H | Pound and drink juice and apply topically | W | 8 | No reports |
| 32. Lonchocarpus laxiflorus Guill. & Perr (ODF 059) | Eputon (Ateso) | R | T | Vomiting | W | 1 | No reports |
| 33. Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth. (ODF 046) | Ogali (Luo) | T | L/B | Decoction | W | 2 | No reports |
| 34. Tamarindus indica L. | Chwaa (Luo) | T | Sd | Chew/apply to the snake-bitten area | W/D | 7 | Seeds are crushed & taken orally as anti-venom [31]. Seeds used for scorpion stings [32] |
| 35. Senna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (ODF 050) | Elekumare (Ateso) | R | T | Mix the powder with cold water and drink 3 times daily for at least 3 days | W | 3 | No reports |
| Iridaceae | |||||||
| 36. Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel (ODF 014) | Lodokole (Ik) | B | H | Make small cuts around the bitten area & apply powder once/mix powder with water & drink | W | 13 | Venomous stings & bites in Cameroon [33]. |
| Lamiaceae | |||||||
| 37. Hoslundia opposita Vahl (ODF 010) |
Etutu/Tutu (Ateso) Itutu (Kumam) |
R | Sh | Crush in water and drink/rub on bitten part/powder and mix with about ¼ l of warm water and drink twice a day for 3 days | W | 5 | Root chewed and make a poultice for snakebites [11]. |
| Meliaceae | |||||||
| 38. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (ODF 039) | Neem* (Acholi) | F | T | Decoction | D/W | 6 | A decoction or poultice used in central Uganda [10]. |
| 39. Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms (ODF 041) | Ekaka (Ateso) | R | Sh | Apply powder topically/make decoction and drink | W | 5 | No reports |
| 40. Toona ciliata M. Roem. (ODF 012) | Yat bwoc/Yat luu pa coo (Luo) | R | T | Pound, mix with water and drink only once. | W | 4 | No reports |
| Moringaceae | |||||||
| 41. Moringa oleifera Lam. (ODF 056) | Moringa* | R/B | T | Decoction | D | 2 | Bark and root juice used in central Uganda [10]. |
| Myrtaceae | |||||||
| 42. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill.(ODF 052) | Kalatuc (Luo) | R/L | T | Decoction | D | 1 | No reports |
| 43. Eucalyptus spp. (ODF 053) | Kalatuc (Luo) | L | T | Decoction | D | 2 | No reports |
| Musaceae | |||||||
| 44. Musa spp. (ODF 042) | Amemo (Luo) | L | R | Decoction | D | 2 | Juice from Musa balbisiana and Musa × paradisiaca in central Uganda [10]. |
| Oleaceae | |||||||
| 45. Jasminum schimperi Vatke (ODF 057) | Ederut (Ateso) | R | H | Mix the powder with powder from C. cyphopetalum and dissolve in water and drink/apply powder topically | W | 10 | No reports |
| Opiliaceae | |||||||
| 46. Opilia amentacea Roxb. (ODF 054) | Epolokiliok (Ateso) | R | CSh | Apply powder on cuts & also drink | W | 1 | Root paste is taken internally to cure snakebite by herbalists in India [21]. |
| Pedaliaceae | |||||||
| 47. Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium (Oliv.) Ihlenf. & Seidenst (ODF 015) | Abal/Emelerait (Ateso), Kilode (Luo) | R | H | Crush in water and drink/rub juice on the bitten part | W | 2 | No reports |
| Phyllanthaceae | |||||||
| 48. Phyllanthus ovalifolius Forssk (ODF 043) | Elakas (Ateso) | R | Sh | Powder, mix with cold water and drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days/apply topically | W | 3 | Root chewed, followed by drinking lots of water to induce vomiting in the management of snakebites in Ethiopia [34] |
| Poaceae | |||||||
| 49. Imperata cylindrica (L) Raeusch. (ODF 055) | Obiya (Ateso/Luo) | R | H | Chew | W | 1 | Root chewed for snakebite in eastern Uganda [10, 11]. |
| 50. Sporobolus pyramidalis P.Beauv. (ODF 001) (ODF 044) | Ajiki (Luo) | L | H | Decoction | W | 1 | No reports |
| Rubiaceae | |||||||
| 51. Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. (ODF 045) | Ekoroi (Ateso) Odwong (Luo) | R | T | Powder, mix with cold water and drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days/apply topically | W | 6 | A roots infusion is drunk for snakebite treatment [11]. |
| Rutaceae | |||||||
| 52. Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (ODF 047) | Lemun (Luo) | Fr | T | Squeeze out juice and drink | D | 1 | The juice is drunk [10]. |
| 53. Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. (ODF 048) | Eusuk (Ateso) | S, R | Powder, mix with cold water and drink thrice daily for at least 3 days/apply topically | W | 5 | No reports | |
| Sapindaceae | |||||||
| 54. Zanha golungensis Hiern (ODF 016) | Ekiya Lo’emun (Ateso) | R/St | T | Pound and mix with water and drink twice | W | 4 | No reports |
| Solanaceae | |||||||
| 55. Capsicum annuum L. (ODF 049) | Kamulari (Luo), Emulalu (Ateso) | F | H | Chew/powder, mix with cold water and drink 3 times a day for at least 3 days/apply topically | D | 5 | No reports |
| 56. Solanum giganteum Jacq. (ODF 017) | Ocok (Luo) | R/L | Sh | Drink ½ cup of decoction/Apply powder to small incisions made around the bite area/burn dry leaves and make victim inhale for severe cases and emergencies | W | 2 | No reports |
| 57. Solanum incanum L. (ODF 056) | Ocok (Luo) | S | R | Decoction | W | 3 | Snakebite treatment in Lira district, northern Uganda [35] and Mukono in central Uganda [10]. |
| Vitaceae | |||||||
| 58. Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. (ODF 058) | Anuno (Luo) | R | H | Decoction | W | 5 | No reports |
| 59. Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm (ODF 034) | Anona (Kumam) | R | H | Pound and squeeze out juice and taken orally | W | 10 | No reports |
| Zingiberaceae | |||||||
| 60. Aframomum mildbraedii Loes. (ODF 018) | Acaet/Asawot (Ateso), Oceyo (Kumam), Ocayo (Luo) | Rh | H | Root juice is drink/powdered & mixed with C. cyphopetalum powder & water then drink/applied topically. | W | 11 | No reports |
H herb, Sh shrub, T tree, Csh creeping shrub, Hb habit, PU- parts used, L leaves, R root, B Blb, S stem bark, Sp sap, F fruit, Bb bulb, WD wild/domesticated, FM frequency of mention
*Local name adapted from the English name