Table 4.
Some examples of biomarkers that have been assessed for use in specific clinical situations
| Situation | Biomarker |
|---|---|
| To diagnose infection in patients with a particular pathology/condition | |
| After cardiac surgery | Endocan [92], CD64 [93], pancreatic stone protein [94] |
| After major surgery | Peptidoglycan [95], elastase [96], leptin [84], calprotectin [75], a proliferation-inducing ligand [97], α-2 macroglobulin [89], lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [15] |
| COPD | Pentraxin 3 [98] |
| Cirrhosis | Interleukin (IL)-6 [72] |
| Trauma | IL-10 [99], NT-proCNP [100], P-selectin [101] |
| Catheter-related infections | Citrulline [102] |
| Infants with necrotic enterocolitis | IP-10 [103] |
| Neutropenic patients | Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [104], pro-adrenomedullin [105] |
| Burns | IL-8 [106], MIF [107] |
| Autoimmune diseases | CD64 [108] |
| To diagnose specific types of infection | |
| Gram (−) vs. Gram (+) | Fibrin degradation products [109], lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [104], CD11b [87] |
| Virus vs. bacterial infection or co-infection | Transforming growth factor (TGF-β) [110], tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α [111] |
| VAP | suPAR [112] |
| Diagnosis of specific conditions | |
| Sepsis vs. graft rejection | Lysozyme [113] |
| Diagnosis of ARDS | Club cell secretory protein (CC)-16 [114], surfactant protein [114] |
| Vascular leakage risk in ARDS | von Willebrand factor [115], angiopoietins (1 and 2) [25], IL-8 [116], syndecan-1 [117], HMGB-1 [118] |
| Recovery from ARDS—endothelial repair | sRAGE [119] |
| Identification of low risk of infection in hematological/oncological patients | IL-6 [120, 121], IL-8 [120–122], MCP-1 [55], IL-5 [123] |
| Identification of infection before clinical symptoms | IL-6 [124], IL-ra [125], soluble protein C receptors [126] |
| Risk of encephalopathy/delirium | VCAM [127], neuron-specific enolase [128] |
| Disseminated intravascular coagulation | P-selectin [129], protein C [130], microparticles [131], matrix-metalloproteinases [132], thrombin-antithrombin complex [133], a2PI [134] |
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome, TNF tumor necrosis factor, VAP ventilator-associated pneumonia, NT-ProCNP N-terminal pro-C-type natriuretic peptide, MIF macrophage migration inhibitory factor, VCAM vascular cell adhesion molecule, IP interferon-gamma-inducible protein, sUPAR soluble urokinase plasminogen receptor, IL-1ra IL-1 receptor antagonist, MCP monocyte chemoattractant protein, sRAGE soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products, HMGB high-mobility group-box 1 protein