Table 3.
Pesticide Exposures and Risk for Holoprosencephaly
| Pesticide Exposure | Cases (%) | Controls (%) | OR (95%CI) | aOR (95%CI)a |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Personal insect repellentsb | ||||
| 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 22 (50.8) | 30 (68.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 32 (49.2) | 14 (31.8) | 2.08 (0.95, 4.71) | 2.76 (0.88, 9.16) |
| Contained DEET | ||||
| No | 1 (4.8) | 4 (33.3) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 15 (71.4) | 7 (58.3) | 8.58 (1.03, 185.33) | NC |
| Used repellent with and without DEET | 5 (23.8) | 1 (8.3) | 20.0 (1.32, 962.18) | NC |
| During pregnancy | ||||
| No | 32 (50.8) | 30 (65.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 31 (49.2) | 16 (34.8) | 1.82 (0.84, 4.03) | 2.89 (0.96, 9.50) |
| Entire pregnancy | ||||
| No | 54 (90.0) | 44 (95.7) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 6 (10.0) | 2 (4.3) | 2.44 (0.53, 17.25) | NC |
| First trimester | ||||
| No | 50 (83.3) | 42 (91.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 10 (16.7) | 4 (8.7) | 2.10 (0.65, 8.10) | 1.46 (0.25, 7.76) |
| Second trimester | ||||
| No | 47 (78.3) | 41 (89.1) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 13 (21.7) | 5 (10.9) | 2.67 (0.78, 7.56) | 4.18 (1.06, 18.95) |
| Third trimester | ||||
| No | 49 (81.7) | 39 (84.8) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 11 (18.3) | 7 (15.2) | 1.25 (0.45, 3.68) | 2.54 (0.70, 9.72) |
| Contained DEET | ||||
| No | 4 (20.0) | 5 (41.7) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 11 (55.0) | 5 (41.7) | 2.75 (0.52, 16.04) | NC |
| Used repellent with and without DEET | 5 (25.0) | 2 (16.7) | 3.13 (0.42, 31.44) | NC |
| Weed killers outside homeb | ||||
| 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 51 (60.7) | 39 (73.6) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 33 (29.3) | 14 (26.4) | 1.80 (0.86, 3.90) | 1.81 (0.65, 5.10) |
| During pregnancy | ||||
| No | 55 (64.7) | 36 (69.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 30 (35.3) | 16 (30.8) | 1.23 (0.59, 2.60) | 1.66 (0.60, 4.67) |
| Weed killers inside homeb | ||||
| 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 80 (95.2) | 51 (96.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 4 (4.8) | 2 (3.8) | 1.28 (0.24, 9.44) | 0.76 (0.03, 8.86) |
| During pregnancy | ||||
| No | 77 (90.6) | 51 (98.1) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 8 (9.4) | 1 (1.9) | 5.29 (0.93, 99.80) | 5.15 (0.65, 107.01) |
| Treatments for lice and scabiesb,c | ||||
| No | 83 (96.5) | 50 (98.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 3 (3.5) | 1 (2.0) | 1.81 (0.22, 37.08) | 1.62 (0.06, 42.44) |
| Pets inside homec | ||||
| No | 24 (28.2) | 20 (37.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 61 (71.8) | 34 (63.0) | 1.50 (0.72, 3.09) | 1.71 (0.62, 4.97) |
| Type | ||||
| Dog | ||||
| No | 38 (44.7) | 27 (50.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 47 (55.3) | 27 (50.0) | 1.24 (0.62, 2.46) | 1.15 (0.43, 3.06) |
| Cat | ||||
| No | 58 (68.2) | 38 (70.4) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 27 (31.8) | 16 (29.6) | 1.11 (0.53, 2.35) | 1.33 (0.45, 3.94) |
| Small mammalc | ||||
| No | 80 (94.1) | 51 (94.4) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 5 (5.9) | 3 (5.6) | 1.06 (0.25, 5.36) | 0.31 (0.01, 2.89) |
| Bird | ||||
| No | 84 (98.8) | 54 (1.00) | NC | NC |
| Yes | 1 (1.2) | 0 (0.0) | NC | NC |
| Fish or reptile | ||||
| No | 79 (92.9) | 50 (92.6) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 6 (7.1) | 4 (7.4) | 0.95 (0.26, 3.87) | 0.88 (0.11, 4.96) |
| Other | ||||
| No | 84 (98.8) | 53 (98.1) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 1 (1.2) | 1 (1.9) | 0.63 (0.02, 16.18) | 1.90 (0.07, 50.18) |
| Pesticides for petsb,c,e | ||||
| No | 49 (64.5) | 42 (79.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 27 (35.5) | 11 (20.8) | 2.10 (0.95, 4.89) | 3.13 (0.69, 6.75) |
| 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 55 (75.3) | 43 (82.7) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 18 (24.7) | 9 (17.3) | 1.56 (0.65, 3.97) | 1.44 (0.38, 5.39) |
| During pregnancy | ||||
| No | 52 (70.3) | 45 (86.5) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 22 (29.7) | 7 (13.5) | 2.72 (1.11, 7.42) | 3.84 (1.04, 16.32) |
| First trimester | ||||
| No | 58 (86.6) | 46 (92.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 9 (13.4) | 4 (8.0) | 1.78 (0.54, 6.92) | 0.21 (0.009, 1.86) |
| Second trimester | ||||
| No | 58 (86.6) | 47 (94.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 9 (13.4) | 3 (6.0) | 1.56 (0.83, 3.38) | 1.02 (0.38, 2.61) |
| Third trimester | ||||
| No | 59 (88.1) | 47 (94.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 8 (11.9) | 3 (6.0) | 1.29 (0.83, 2.16) | 0.89 (0.42, 1.73) |
| Personally apply products for pets | ||||
| No | 59 (80.8) | 47 (90.4) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 14 (19.2) | 5 (9.6) | 2.23 (0.79, 7.31) | 1.22 (0.23, 6.05) |
| Regular encounter with horsec,f | ||||
| No | 72 (96.0) | 45 (97.8) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 3 (4.0) | 1 (2.2) | 1.88 (0.23, 28.54) | 1.80 (0.07, 47.50) |
| Fly repellents for horses | ||||
| No | 8 (88.9) | 4 (1.00) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 1 (11.1) | 0 (0.0) | 1.58 (0.05, 47.51) | NC |
| Pest problemsc | ||||
| No | 51 (63.0) | 31 (63.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 30 (37.0) | 18 (36.7) | 1.01 (0.49, 2.13) | 0.66 (0.21, 1.98) |
| During entire pregnancy | ||||
| No | 66 (81.5) | 42 (87.5) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 15 (18.5) | 6 (12.5) | 1.59 (0.60, 4.75) | 1.47 (0.33, 6.43) |
| First trimester | ||||
| No | 76 (93.8) | 45 (93.8) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 5 (6.2) | 3 (6.2) | 0.99 (0.23, 4.99) | 0.15 (0.005, 1.90) |
| Second trimester | ||||
| No | 77 (95.1) | 42 (87.5) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 4 (4.9) | 6 (12.5) | 0.36 (0.09, 1.34) | NC |
| Third trimester | ||||
| No | 79 (97.5) | 44 (91.7) | Ref | NC |
| Yes | 2 (2.5) | 4 (8.3) | 0.28 (0.04, 1.49) | NC |
| Household pest control productsb,c,g | ||||
| No | 36 (52.2) | 31 (63.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 33 (47.8) | 18 (36.7) | 1.58 (0.75, 3.37) | 2.60 (0.84, 8.68) |
| 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 47 (75.8) | 37 (77.1) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 15 (24.2) | 11 (22.9) | 1.07 (0.44, 2.66) | 1.99 (0.52, 7.80) |
| During pregnancy | ||||
| No | 46 (71.9) | 33 (71.7) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 18 (28.1) | 13 (28.2) | 0.99 (0.43, 2.34) | 2.16 (0.62, 7.78) |
| First trimester | ||||
| No | 53 (82.8) | 38 (82.6) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 11 (17.2) | 8 (17.4) | 0.99 (0.36, 2.77) | 2.06 (0.49, 8.43) |
| Second trimester | ||||
| No | 53 (82.8) | 36 (78.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 11 (17.2) | 10 (21.7) | 0.86 (0.53, 1.40) | 1.27 (0.63, 2.51) |
| Third trimester | ||||
| No | 52 (81.2) | 38 (82.6) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 12 (18.8) | 8 (17.4) | 1.03 (0.74, 1.45) | 1.28 (0.76, 2.11) |
| Occupational exposures to pesticides and herbicides | ||||
| Maternal: 3 months before pregnancy | ||||
| No | 53 (86.9) | 33 (94.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 8 (13.1) | 2 (5.7) | 2.47 (0.45, 25.27) | 1.95 (0.07, 52.19) |
| Maternal: during pregnancy | ||||
| No | 54 (90.0) | 31 (91.2) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 6 (10.0) | 3 (8.8) | 1.15 (0.23, 7.58) | 1.15 (0.11, 11.42) |
| Paternalc | ||||
| No | 43 (72.9) | 30 (85.7) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 16 (27.1) | 5 (14.3) | 2.21 (0.68, 8.59) | 2.39 (0.34, 20.58) |
| Living next to an agricultural fieldc,h | ||||
| No | 70 (82.4) | 47 (87.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Yes | 15 (17.6) | 7 (13) | 1.44 (0.50, 4.49) | 3.24 (0.94, 12.31) |
Note: OR Crude odds ratio, aOR Adjusted odds ratio, CI Confidence Interval, NC Not calculated, DEET N, N-diethyl meta toluamide. Adjusted odds ratios for some variables were not calculated because of low rates of exposure to the potential risk factors and/or low ascertainment that did not permit estimations of the risk parameters
aAll odds ratios are from logistic regression models adjusted for maternal consumption of vitamin or supplement containing folic acid(at least 400 mcg during the 3 months before pregnancy and/or first month of pregnancy), and time since birth to completion of survey (continuous in years)
bUse by mother or anyone in household
cDuring the 3 months before pregnancy and/or during pregnancy
dRabbit, gerbil, hamster, guinea pig, ferret, mouse
eTo control for fleas, ticks or mites
fOwn, lease, train or care for horse regularly (once a week or more) 3 month before pregnancy until birth
gProducts to control for pests or insects such as bugs like ants, wasps or others in or outside the home
hWithin 100 m, e.g. field next door or across the street, during the 3 months before pregnancy or 1st trimester