Table 3.
Health benefits of anthocyanins.
| Eye Health | Administration | References |
|---|---|---|
| Improvement of vision in patients with open-angle glaucoma | Oral capsule | [114] |
| Protective effect during retinal inflammation | IV in rats | [115] |
| Regeneration of rhodopsin and smooth muscle relaxation | IV in mouse model | [116] |
| Improvement of dark adaptation | Oral capsule | [117] |
| Prevention of cataractogenesis of diabetic cataract | Incubation of Enucleated rat lenses | [118] |
| Antiapoptotic effects against oxidative damage of lens epithelial cell | Cell studies | [119] |
| Prevention of retinal degeneration induced by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea | Oral solution | [120] |
| Increase of ocular blood flows | Oral capsule | [121] |
| Cardiovascular diseases | ||
| Inhibition of platelet aggregation (in vitro antithrombotic properties) | Cell studies | [122] |
| Increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and decrease of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels | Oral capsule | [123] |
| Lower risk of non-fatal myocardial infarction | Oral intake | [124] |
| Vasorelaxation properties in isolated coronary artery rings in pigs | Cell studies | [125] |
| Decrease of susceptibility to ischemia-reperfusion injury and infarct size | Rodent food | [126] |
| Improvement of lipid profile and platelet function | Oral capsule | [127] |
| Antiobesity effects | ||
| Improvement of weight gain and lipid profile on obese rats | Fat diet-induced mouse model | [128] |
| Suppression of body weight gain and improve blood lipid profile in rats | Fat diet-induced mouse model | [129] |
| Reduction of sugar concentration in urine and plasma in rats | Intraperitoneal and intragastric administration | [130] |
| Ameliorated obesity in high-fat-fed mice | Cell studies | [131] |
| Upregulation of adipocytokine secretion and gene expression in rat adipocytes | Cell studies | [132] |
| Suppression of fat tissue gain, weight gain and other metabolic disorders | Fat diet-induced mouse model | [133] |
| Antidiabetic effects | ||
| Amelioration of hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity in diabetic mice | Fat diet-induced mouse model | [134] |
| Improvement of dyslipidemia, enhancement of antioxidant capacity, and prevention of insulin resistance in human with type 2 diabetes | Oral capsule | [135] |
| Alleviation of glomerular angiogenesis of diabetic kidneys in mice | Cell studies | [136] |
| Inhibition of DPP IV activity (a protease that regulates blood glucose levels via degradation of incretins) | Computational studies | [137] |
| Amelioration of renal apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy mice | Oral solution | [138] |
| Activation of adipose tissue-derived adiponectin to defend against diabetes-related endothelial dysfunction in mice | Diet-induced mouse model | [139] |
| Antimicrobial effects | ||
| Induction of cell damage by destroying the cell wall, membrane, and intercellular matrix | Cell studies | [140] |
| Highest sensitivity to Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria innocua | Microbial strains | [141] |
| Antibacterial effects towards Enterococcus faecium resistant to vancomycin, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli | Microbial strains | [142] |
| Inhibition of Gram-negative bacteria | Microbial strains | [143] |
| Anticancer effects | ||
| Suppression of cell proliferation, inflammation, and angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis in esophageal tissue of rats | Diet-induced rat model | [144] |
| Anti-invasive potential in breast cancer cell lines | Cell studies | [145] |
| Anticancer effect on BALB/c nude mice bearing MDA-MB-453 cell xenografts and breast cancer cell lines | Cell studies | [146] |
| Inhibition of cell migration and invasion, suppression of activation of rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma, mitogen-activated protein kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and downregulation of secretion of matrix metalloproteinase 2 | Cell studies | [147] |
| Inhibition of growth of human HT-29 colon cancer cells, increase of expression of tumor suppression genes and decrease of cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression | Cell studies | [148] |
| Reduction of colonic aberrant crypt foci, colonic cellular proliferation and COX-2 mRNA expression in rats | Diet-induced rat model | [149] |
| Suppression of formation of aberrant crypt foci in colons of CF-1 mice | Cell studies and diet-induced rat model | [150] |
| Promotion of apoptosis in benign prostatic hyperplasia rats | Oral doses in rat model | [151] |
| Anti-invasive effect on human hepatoma Hep3B cells and inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase MMP-2 and MMP-9 gene expression | Cell studies | [152] |
| Inhibition of Akt-mTOR signaling thereby inducing maturation of acute myeloid leukemia cells, besides inducing apoptotic players such as TRAIL in cancer systems | Cell studies | [153] |
| Neurodegenerative diseases | ||
| Neuroprotective activity by suppression of dopaminergic cell death in Parkinson’s disease | Cell studies | [154] |
| Improvement of learning and memory ability in mice. Higher antioxidant enzyme activity and less lipid oxidation in both brain and liver | Diet-induced mouse model | [155] |
| Regulation of cholinergic neurotransmission to restore Na+, K+-ATPase and Ca2+-ATPase activities and to prevent memory deficits in rats | Oral and injected rat models | [156] |
| Neuroprotective effect: Memory and synaptic dysfunction | Oral rat models | [157] |
| Improvement of its free radical scavenging capabilities via p38/JNK pathway against Abeta1-42-induced oxidative stress | Cell studies | [158] |
| Enhancement of neuroprotection against Abeta1-42-induced neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration | Oral mouse model and cell studies | [159] |
| Enhancement of the neuroprotection in an Abeta1-42 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease | Oral mouse model and cell studies | [160] |